ChapterSeven SubserviencetotheGermans ( )

Transkript

1 ChapterSeven SubserviencetotheGermans ( ) Worldeventsdidnotstopformypersonalproblems. WhileIhadretiredtoaprivatelifehoping tobeleftinpeace,spainfoughtforthefutureofcivilization. IknewlitleaboutSpainasidefromwhatIhadlearnedinschool.Ihadvaguememoriesofthe Inquisitionandofanabsolutemonarchythat,inthenameofCatholicism,hadclosedthecountrytoevery progresivetrend,beittheenlightenment,liberalism,orscientificthought-inotherwords,acontinuous andunredeemedmisgovernment.thelastreigningdynasty,thebourbons,waswel-knowntoevery ItalianschoolchildwhoimmediatelyasociateditwiththeSpanishBourbons,andtheirreignoverthe "TwoSicilies."Theygovernedwithexemplaryineptitudeevenintheirmethodsofoppresion,andhad beenthrownoutofitalybygaribaldi'smile. Morerecently,IhadlearnedfromthenewspapersthatDeRiverahadbeenadictator,thathehad steppeddown.thenonefineday,kingalfonsohadalsobeenforcedtoleave.iwasstilastudent,andi wasexcitedbytheproclamationofthespanishrepublic.inthesummerof1933,whenihadgonetothe Swiscolegio,mySpanishfriendshadhadmelistentoarecordthatwent Espana,Espana,tuvalentia lamonarchia adestrujo. Inevertiredofhearingit. Ihadn'ttakenmuchinterestintheSpanishRepublicuntilFranco'srevolt.Ididhearofthevictory ofthepopularfrontinthelatestelections('35or'36).butwhentherevolutionstarted,ifolowednewsof thewarwithinterest. Musolini'sinvolvementwasevidentfromthebeginning,whenthenewspapers reportedthatsomeitalianairplaneshadcrashedonthefrenchcoastofnorthafrica.fascistitaly's participationintherevoltbecamemoreandmoreobviousandibegantohearofso-and-sowhohadgone tofightinspain.itwasnosecretthatentirearmyunitswerefightingalongsidetherebels.inthe meantimetherebelshadbeguntocalthemselvesnationalists,probablybecause,withthehelpofa foreignnation,theywerefightingagainsttheexplicitwilofthespanishpeople.even Musoliniadmited, inhisarticleinthepopolod'italia,thatguadalajarawasadefeatfortheitalianfascistarmy. Ontheotherhand,theRepublicanswerehelpedonlybytheworkingpeopleandtheSoviet Union,andduetothedistancebetweenthetwocountriesthishelpwasnotveryefective. Meanwhile, thegreateuropeanpowershaddeclaredapolicyofnon-intervention,whoseonlyresultinregardstoitaly, wasthatpasportswerestamped"notvalidinspain." Meanwhile,theItaliangovernmentcontinuedto sendsoldiers. SovietaidcouldnotreachtheSpanishfrontbyland,becauseofFrance'sneutrality.Italian submarines,undertheapprovingeyesofthefrenchandtheenglish,tooktoactsofpiracyinthe Mediteranean,sinkingRusianshipsthatwerebringingreinforcementstoSpain.ButtheSpanishpeople 1

2 showedhowharditistodefeatthosewhoarefightingfortheirideals:thespanishrevolutioncontinued foryears,bloodyandgivingnoquarter. JustastheItalianclergyhadblesedtroopswhentheyleftforAbysinia,theynowblesedtroops going"overseas."itwasamaterofdefeatingcommunismandofeliminatingtheredperilforever. WhiletheSpanishnationalistsweresubmitingto Musolini,theItalianFascistsweresubmiting tohitler.theapprochementbetweenthetwototalitarianregimeswasinevitableafterthewarin Abysinia. MusolinitraveledtoGermanyandwasvisiblyimpresedbytheachievementsofthenew Germanstate,bythebrutalitywithwhichithadeliminatedalopposition,andbythestrengthofthenew Germanarmy. In March1938theAnchluswasanaccomplishedfact.TheGermanswereontheBrennerPas. Musolinididnotopposethem,eitherbecausehedislikeddemocracy,orbecauseheknewhedidnot havethestrengthtodefeatthem.fromthatmoment Musolinidevelopedaninferioritycomplex,andhe beganimitatingthegermanmodel. OnedaytheItalianarmyintroducedthegoosestep.ThefirsttimeIsawanewsreeloftheFascist legionsdoingthegoosestep,thewholetheaterbrokeoutlaughing:"thisisnotourthing,"thelaughter seemedtosay,"oursenseoftheridiculousistoowel-developed." Anothersimilarinnovationwastheintroductionofauniformtobewornbystateemployees.I mighthavebeenforcedtowalkaroundtheinstituteinuniform,ifihadnotbeensparedthisfateby anotherinstanceinwhichitalianfascistsimitatedthenazis. * * * Becauseoftheanti-semiticcampaign,Iwasneverrequiredtowearauniform. Anti-semitismhadnotpreviouslyexistedinItalyinanyform.Jewswereadmitedintoalphases ofitalianlife,includinghighsociety.nobodyworiedifapersonwas,orwasnot,jewish.theitalian perspectiveonthejewsislesanti-semiticthaninsomedemocraticcountries,suchasfranceorthe UnitedStates. Idon'twanttowriteaboutthereasonsfortheexistenceofanti-semitism,becauseIamspeaking aboutitaly,andanti-semitismisnotanitalianphenomenon.idon'tevenwanttoexplainwhyantisemitismdoesn'texistinitaly,asthisseemssonaturalasnottorequireexplanation.butmaybeatthis pointitwouldbeinterestingtosaysomethingaboutitalianjews[seececilroth,historyofthejewsof Italy],orrather,Ishouldsay,JewishItalians. Asopposedtoothercountries,especialythoseofcentralEurope,theJewsinItalywereneither anethnicnoraculturalminority.astomyownexperience,altheancestorsthatiknewof,livedand wereburiedinitaly,asweretheancestorsofalmostalmyjewishacquaintances.italyis"thelandofmy fathers"andthereforebydefinitionitismyland.furthermore,almyancestorsspokeitalian-ifnotpure Italian,thenanItaliandialectwhichidentifiedthemevenmorecloselywiththepeopleamongwhomthey lived.thereforemyculturaltraditionisitalian.[thisishardtoexplaintoamericans,forwhomajewisa personwhospeaksyiddish.] MaybemyancestorsknewhowtoreadHebrew(buttheyprobablydidnotevenknowofthe existenceofyiddish)anduseditfortheirprayers.butmygrandfatherdidnotknowthemeaningofthe wordsthathewasreading.(thisisabitlikesomecatholicswhosingandprayinlatinwithout understandingwhattheyaresaying.)eventhemoreculturedjews,whounderstoodhebrew,didnotuse itasaspokenlanguage.hebrewhadbeenadeadlanguageforcenturiesbeforeitwasrevivedbyzionists inthenewstateofisrael. TherehavealwaysbeenJewsinItaly.ThesynagogueinRomeisaninstitutionthatisolderthan thechurch.sincepagantimestherehadbeenjewishshopkeepersandslaves,andtheyhadtheirown synagogue.someofmyrelativessaythattheyaredescendedfromancientromanfamilies.thisclaim seemstobeasstupidastheclaimsthenazismadewhentheyasertedthattheywereracialypure. ProbablyIhaveJewish,Roman,Lombard,GermanandSpanishbloodinmyveins,asdoalItalians.And maybe,whoknows,oneofmyancestorswasajewishslaveinromewhospokelatin.infact,thisis 2

3 quiteposible,becausein20centuriesthereare100generations,andexcludingduplications,iwould haveatleast2100x1030= ancestorswhowerealivein Romantimes.Butthisnumberismuchlargerthanthetotalnumberofpeoplewhohaveeverwalkedthe earth. Idonotknowmuchaboutmyancestors.ItisknownthatafamilyofDeBenedetis(probablyan ItalianversionofBenBaruch,sonof BenedetoinHebrew)livedinPiedmont,inNizza Monferato,in the18thcentury.theymayhavesetledtheremuchearlier. Mymaternalgrandfather'sfamilywasfromLivorno.Itwasprobablyafamilythathad immigratedwhenthe Medici,whohadestablishedthetownasanewport,hadwelcomedSpanishJews whowerebeingpersecuted. Mygrandmother'smaidennamewasTedeschi,whichindicatesthatsome forgotenancestorwasprobablygerman. MyothergrandmotherwasanUrbino,andmaybeitisthrough herthatiamdescendedfromaromanslave.sincealmyancestorshadlivedinitaly,ididnothaveany relativesabroadbeforetheanti-semiticcampaign.thiswastrueofmostjewishitalians. It'shardtounderstandhowandwhytheJewishreligionsurvivedtwentycenturiesofpersecution andexile.probablyit'sbecausestrictmonotheismforcesitsbelieversintogreatersocialcohesionthan otherbeliefs. Duringthesepasttwentycenturies,theJewsofItalyhavebeenpersecutedandhated,butmaybe they'vealsobeenlovedandrespected.theysurvivedbytakingadvantageof,butalsosometimeshelping, theirneighbors.theytookontheprofesionsthatwerealowedthem,whichexcludedcaryingweapons andfarming.duringtherenaisance,manyjewsbecamedanceteachers. Butaseryoneknows,theyusualytookmoresedentaryjobs.Themostprofitableamongthem wasusury,anactivitywhichwasconsideredsinfulbymedievalcatholics.beginningindante'stime, however,someofthebeterknown[catholic]familiesbeganpracticingusuryanditcametobeknownas banking. Buttraditionaly,themostrespectedpeopleintheJewishcommunitywerenotthosewhoshowed thegreatestbusinesacumen,butthosewhoexhibitedthegreatestabilityanderuditioninreligiousand Talmudicdialogue. Withintheghetos,thestudyofsacredbooksandauxiliaryliterature,Talmudic exegesisandtheworshipofasingleabstractgod,producedaclasofpeoplethatwasaccustomedto usingabstractandformalyexactreasoning. Buttheresidentialrestrictions,andthelimitationonalowableprofesionsmusthaveweighed heavilyontheghetojews.asaresulttheywelcomednapoleon'stroopswhobroughtliberty,equality andfraternitytoitaly.andwhenthekingsofsavoy,havingcometounderstandcontemporaryideas, proclaimedaconstitutionthatrecognizedthataltheirsubjectswereequal,thejewsbecametheirnatural alies.italiannationalismwasembracedenthusiasticalybyitalianjewswhoshedbloodinthewarsofthe RisorgimentoandparticipatedinGaribaldi'sexpeditions.[TherewereeightJewsinGaribaldi'sMile.For documentationonthejewishcontributiontotheitalianwarsofunificationseethehistoryofthejewsof ItalybyCecilRoth.] Ontheotherhand,itwouldberidiculoustodenythatJewsinItalyformasubculture characterizedbycertainatributesandopinions.obviously,thecommunalhistoryoftheghetoandof persecutionswilleaveitsmark.theironyisthatthedespisedactivitiesthatthejewshadmasteredasa resultofexternalcoercion,becamehighlyvaluedinthemodernworld.bythetimethejewsleftthe gheto,businesacumen,thecultofknowledge,andtraininginabstractreasoningweremuchmoreuseful thanknowledgeaboutfarmingorhandlingweapons.therefore,theywereabletoriserapidlyfroma despisedstatustoarelativelyhighlevel.ithinkthatthisundeniablefactiseasilyexplainedbyhistorical factors,withoutbringingracialfactorsintoplay.ifheredityisafactor,itcanbeeasilyexplainedby selectionduetopersecutionandlifeinthegheto,whereintelectualendowmentsweremorelikelyto survivethanqualitiesofphysicalstrength. Liberatedfromthegheto,theearlygenerationsthrewtheirefortsintomakingmoney. While ItalianJewsdidnotaccumulatefortunesontheorderoftheRothschilds,manyofthemwereabletoearn aplaceinthehighbourgeoisie,andinthekingdomofitalytheaveragejewlivedamorecomfortablelife 3

4 thantheaveragecitizen.thisisatributableto,irepeat,theirspecifictrainingresultingfromhistorical conditions,andnotto"racial"superiority. LatergenerationsthrewtheirenergiesintoculturalendeavorswiththeresultthatwhereasJews constituteaboutonepercentofthetotalpopulationofitaly,some10%ofitalianprofesorsarejewish. ThesmalnumberofJews(about50,000beforethewar)andtheirefectiveequalitywithother citizensfacilitatedasimilation.asimilationwouldprobablyhavebeentotalwithinafewgenerationsif policieshadnotchanged.itwasonlytheimpositionofnazipersecutionthatpreventedthesmal populationofitalianjewsfromnaturalydisappearing(andsomerabbisweregratefultothemforthis). Despitetheprogrestowardasimilation,thereremainedanundeniabletendencyforJewsto clustertogether,tofindfriendsandspousesamongpeopleofjewishdescent,independentofany ethnographic,ritualisticorracistconsiderations.proofofthisisthenumberofjewishnamesmentioned inthesepages.thistendencyisduetothefactthatjewsbelongedtothesamesubculture,formedbya commonhistoryandfamilytradition.itisafactthatifajewhasaninterestingconversationwithafelow traveler,whetheritbeonaship,atrain,orinaninternationalhotel,hewiloftenfind,tohisownsurprise, thatheistalkingtoapersonofjewishheritage.iimaginethishappenstomembersofothersubcultures, suchastravelingsalesmen,soccerplayers,membersofthenobility,anduniversityprofesors,whoby profesionortraditionhaveasimilarworldview. AtthebeginningoftheFascistperiod,JewishItaliansweresuficientlyasimilatedthattheir reactiontothenewregimewasbasedontheirclasafiliation,ratheronbelongingtothejewishminority. Infact,manyJews,amongwhommyrichrelatives,wereactivesupportersoftheregime,aswasmostof thebusinesclaswithwhomtheyidentified.others,suchasmyunclewhowasaprofesor,disapproved of,andopposedfascismbecause,asintelectuals,theydidnotwanttojeopardizetheirfreedomof expresion.veryfewfeltthatthefascisttotalitarianprogramendangeredthemasmembersofanethnic minority.theghetohadbeenforgotenbytheyoung,andjewishitaliansnolongerconsidered themselvespartofaminority. ItistruethatthepercentageofantifascistswasgreateramongJewsthanamongnon-Jews.Butit mayalsobeposibletoshowthatfascismreceivedgreatersupportfromthejewsinrelationtotheir numbers,intermsoffinancialcontributions.ifthisweretrue,itwouldnotbecontradictory.it corespondstotheneedamongmembersofthejewishsubculturetotakeadefinitestance,eitherproor con,ratherthantositonthesidelines. MaybethisisthemostsalientcharacteristicoftheJewishpeople: thetendencytotakematersseriouslyandtotakethemtoextremes. TheFascistsmadethemistakeofthinkingofpeopleasmembersofgroupsratherthanas individualmembersofsociety.ithinkananti-fascistgovernmentthatmadethesameeror(ie.,ofseeing peopleasmembersofgroupsandnotasindividuals)couldhavechastisedjewsforbeingfascistonthe samebasisthatfascistsaccusedthemofbeinganti-fascist. Jewscanbeaccusedofanything.ThebourgeoisclascanaccusethemofbeingCommunists, pointingtokarl MarxandLeonTrotskyasexamples.TheCommunistscanaccusethemofbeing capitalists,pointingtojewsinhighfinance.religiouspeoplecanaccusethemofbeingatheists,and atheistsofbeingnarow-mindedlyreligious.forwhoeverfindsacharacteristicthatistypicalyjewish, someoneelsecanfindaworld-famousjewwhoisknownfortheopposite.forthosewhosaythatjews arephysicalyweak,onecouldpointto MaxBaerwhowasaworldchampionboxer.Forthosewhosay thatjewsarecorupt,examplesofstrictlymoraljewishfamiliescouldbefound,andsoon. InItaly,peopledidnotthinkmuchabouttheJewishproblem.Therewereclearlythosewho thoughtthatjewswerecheap,butpersonaly,ineverknewanyonewhojudgedmethatway.iftherewere timeswheniturneddownamoviebecauseiwantedtosavemoney,myfriendsjokedaboutmyjewish backgroundwithoutanyintentiontoofend. Thefolowingisaposibleexampleofthekindofanti-semitismthatexistsItaly:Duringmyfirst yearattheuniversityinflorence,imadefriendswithaclasmatetowhomiwasimmediatelydrawn, andthefeelingwasreciprocal.inashopweranintoanotherschoolmatewhomididnotknow.iasked myfriendwhohewas,andhesaid"idon'tlikehim,andbesides,he'sjewish."iimmediatelylethim knowthatitoowasjewish.hefeltbad,andmumbledsomeapologies.thisdidnotinterferewithour 4

5 friendship,andheoftencametomyhome,andiwasinvitedtohis.ilaterlearnedthatthissameperson, whowasoneofthefewpeopleieverheardsayabadwordaboutjews,behavedveryweltowardshis Jewishcoleaguesaftertheywerefiredfolowingtheenactmentoftheanti-semiticlaws.Hestoodby themanddidnothidehisdisapprovaloftheraciallaws. Ontheotherhand,sometimestheoppositehappened.OnceIlefttheUniversitywithayoung mathematiciancaledsestini[hemustbeprofesorof'meccanicarazionale'inflorence-1966]andhe beganpraisingthejewsfortheirintelectualsuperiority.naturaly,iwasembarased,andobjectedby sayingthatjewishsuperioritydidnotexist. Warmingtothesubject,hetriedtopreshispointuntilItold himthatiwasjewish,whichithoughtheknewfromthestart."ifihadknownthatyouwerejewish,"he answered,"iwouldn'thavespokenlikethat.it'sembarasingforbothofus." Foralongtime,theFascistatitudetowardtheJewishquestionwastypicalyItalian:theproblem simplydidnotexist.amongotherthings,inhisconversationswithludwig, Musoliniexplicitly condemnedanti-semitism.hisintimaterelationshipwith MargheritaSarfatiprovedthatJewsdidnot makehimpuke,astheydidhitler. OnlyoncebeforeFascism'sapprochementwithGermanydidanti-semitismmakeanappearance infascistpolitics.ithinkitwasin1934.agroupofyoungjewswasdiscoveredalongtheitalian-swis border,atemptingtosmugglesubversiveliterature(fromgiustiziaeliberta)intoitaly.thenewswas keptquietforafewdays,andthenwaspublishedonpasover,thejewisheaster,underafront-page bannerheadline,"arestofagroupofjewishanti-fascists."theglaringuseoftheword"jewish" seemedtoindicatethatthefascistsintendedtoinitiateananti-semiticcampaign. Thearticledetailedthearestofeverymemberofthegroupexceptone, MarioLevi,sonofa wel-knownanatomyprofesorinturin.levimanagedtoswimacrostheborderbyjumpingintoariver, avoidingshotsfromtheitalianborderguards.ontheothersidehewasfishedoutbytheswisborder guards.theitalianpapersatributedthefolowingwordstohim:"canidiitalianivigliacchi"(italiansons ofbitches)whichtheyclaimedhespitoutassoonashereachedtheotherside. WhenImet MarioinParis, hetoldmethatwhathehadactualysaidwas,"canidifascistivigliacchi"(fascistsonsofbitches). ButSarfatiintervened,andtherewerenoconsequencesforJewishItalians,excepttoinspirefear amongthephilo-fascists.fearisabadcounselor.inthiscase,itresultedinthepublicationofaweekly paper,caledlanostrabandiera,setimanaledegliitalianidifedemosaica(ourflag,aweeklyfor ItaliansoftheJewishfaith),publishedinTurin. InalItaliancities,JewsgatheredundertheItalianflag,toafirmtheirpurefaithinFascistbeliefs. AttheInstitute,someoneaskedmetosignan"ourflag"manifesto.Itoldhim,"IamnotJewishenough, norfascistenoughtosignthispaper." Mymotherhadkeptupher membershipinthejewishcommunityofflorence,sothatshecould beburiednexttomyfatherinthejewishcemetery.ideclinedeveryinvitationtojoin,eitherinflorence orinpadova,sinceididnotmuchcareaboutthefateofmybones. Meanwhilethe NostraBandieragroupwhich,tomyshame,includedmyrichrelatives,had managedtotakecontrolofthejewishcommunityinflorence.thecommunitywasreducedtomaking declarationsofloyaltytotheregimeandofadmirationfortheduce.afterthis,andafteratalkwithme, mymotherresignedfromthecommunity,preferingtorespectherownideasandthoseofmyfather whileshewasalive,ratherthantoliebesidehimaftershedied. ThereligiousgroupsandtheZionistsopposedNostraBandierawhilethemorefree-thinking JewsweredisinterestedintheadministrationoftheJewishcommunity. FewJewswereorthodox,andeventhesedidnotgototheextremesofobservancethatthe Orthodoxpracticeinothercountries.TheItalianrabbisworeashortbeardthatmadethemlooksomewhat profesorial.initalyineversawasinglefulbeard,orthelongcurlsandcaftansandblackhatsthatcan befoundinnewyork.peoplepracticedtheirreligionwithamodicumofgoodsenseandthoughmany familiesatendedsynagogueforthehighholidaysandforfamilyoccasions,fewobservedthedietarylaws, andevenfewerobservedthesabbath. ZionismwasviewedmostlyasacharityforhelpingoppresedJewsinothercountries.Inother words,azionistinitalywas"ajewwhogavemoneytoasecondjew,sothatathirdcouldgoto 5

6 Palestine." Maybesomesawitasaformofinsurance,giventhat"oneneverknows."[Theatitude towardszionismchangedafterthepersecutions.thenthejokewasthatanitalianzionistwasajewwho wantedtocreateajewishstatesothathecouldbeitsambasadortoparis.] VeryfewseriouslyconsideredgoingtoPalestinebeforethepersecutions.Someolderpeople wantedtogofortraditionalreligiousreasonsandsomeyoungpeoplewantedtogoforcompletely diferentreasons.thefewlayzionistsbelievedthatthejewswereanation,towhichtheyfeltthey belonged. * * * * * This,inshort,wasthesituationofJudaisminItalywhen,onJuly14,1938thenewspapers publishedthe"decalogueonrace"writenbyalegedintelectuals,ethnologistsandanthropologists.this wasanothersteptowardimitatingthenazis,andtowardamorecompletesubservienceofthecultureto sordidpolitics. IreadtheDecalogueoneeveningatacafeinPaduainthecompanyofafelowphysicist,who wasgermanandhalfjewish."ifiwereyou,"hesaid,"iwouldtrytoleaverightaway.ihaveseenhow thesethingsturnedoutingermany."duringthenextfewdaysthenewspapersbegantheiranti-semitic slander.theyalternatedthesearticleswithothersafirmingtheoriginalityoftheitalianconceptofrace, withasurancesthatnoharmwouldcometojews. AfewweekslaterIwascaledtoRomeforacompetitionthatIhadentered. Myfriendsinthe physicslabwelcomedmebysayingthatiprobablyhadlitlechanceofwinningbecauseoftheantisemiticcampaign,butthatsinceiwasinrome,imightasweltaketheexam. IhadknownthecircleofRomanphysicistsforseveralyears,keepingintouchwiththemduring myoccasionaltripstorome,aswelasatvariousconferences.therecognizedheadoftheschoolwas"il Papa"(thePope).ThiswasthenamegiventoHisExcelencyEnricoFermi,ItalianAcademic,byItalian physicists.thenamesuitedhimwel,sinceeveryonewasconvincedofhisinfalibility,andthey consultedhimwhentheyhadquestionsaboutscientificproblems."ilpapa"pontificatedonphysics,and wasnotconcernedaboutanythingelse. ThentherewastheVenerableTeacher,FrancoRaseti,"PontificalAcademic."Hewasaperson ofmonstrousinteligence,whocouldspeakcompetentlyaboutbiologyandgeologyaswelasabout physics,andhehadtraveledtheworld.the"venerableteacher"hadbeenafascistsincethebeginning, andhadtakenpartinthe MarchonRome. TherewasGilbertoBernardini,ofwhomIhavealreadyspoken,andEdoardoAmaldiaswelas otheryoungasistantsandstudents.amongthesewas MarioAgeno,apersonofgreatliteraryand philosophicalsophistication,andadeepthinker.agenohadalwaysbeenafascist. AtaluncheonwiththeRomanphysicists,InoticedthatAgenowasabsent."Where'sAgeno?"I asked."he'lbeherelater,"iwastold.hearivedatabouttwoo'clock,lookingtired,thin,depresedand humiliated.hefelintoachairandateverylitle,hiseyesfixedonthetable."it'simposible,"hesaid,"i can'tstandit."hehadbeenwiththeuniversitymilitia,learningthegoosestepsothathecouldparadein frontofhitler,whowasexpectedtovisitshortly. WhenIwasabletotalktohimalone,Iaskedhimwhyhewassodepresed. "Inthefirstplace,I'mexhausted,"hesaid."ButexhaustionisnothingcomparedtothefeelingI haveinsidewhenithinkthatalthispreparationistohonoritaly'smostdangerousenemy.i'mtelingyou, Ican'tstanditanylonger.IfthingsgoonlikethisforanotherfewdaysI'leithergetsickorgocrazy." Itwassadtoseeagoodfriendreducedtothiscondition.Iwasnotevenheartenedbyhispolitical changeofheart:atthispoint,itwastoolate.butalthephysicistsinromehadchangedtheirpolitical opinions.theyhadalbecomeantifascists.theanschlushadopenedtheireyes.astronggermanstate atthebrennermeanttheendofitalianindependence.theyfinalyrealizedthatfascismwasnotthe defenderofitalianprestige.peoplehadbeenreadytoacceptthesacrificesimposedonthembyfascism, thinkingthattheywererequiredforthegloryoftheircountry.buttheycametoseethattheirsacrifices weremadeintheinterestofacrudeformofoppresionandforexploitationwithoutjustification. 6

7 Afewdaysaftertakingtheexamforthecompetition,Iwasgiventheresults:thepositionwas awardedtotheothercandidatewho,everyoneagreed,wasnotasgoodascientistasi.thecommision itselftoldmethathe'dbeengiventhepositionbecause,afteral,"thepoorguy..." AmongthemembersofthecommisionwasProf.Careli,fromtheUniversityofNaples,the profesorwhoadvisedmewhenicompetedforthefelowshiptoparis.asisaidbefore,carelihad takenalikingtome.heexplainedthecommision'sdecision,almostapologeticaly,andaskedmeabout myfuture.itoldhimaboutmyuncertainsituationasajewandheadvisedmetoleavepaduawhere, besidesme,thereweremanyotherjewsinthelab.itoldhimthatthiswasoneofthereasonsthatihad takentheexamforapositioninrome.(thiswasn'ttrue,butiwantedtotugathisconscience,sothathe wouldhelpme.) ItoldhimthatsinceIcouldnotgetthepositioninRome,theonlywaytoleavePaduawastoget afelowshiptostudyabroad.hefeltthiswasareasonableidea."spendayearabroad,andyou'lseethat thisantisemiticinsanitywilend.thenyoucangetanothergoodpositioninsomeitalianuniversity.i'l phonethenationalcouncilofresearch(consiglionazionaledelericerche)today.cometothetrain stationtomorowandihopetogiveyouanafirmativeanswerbeforeileave." Imethimatthestationthenextday."Iphoned,"hesaid"butthefirstthingtheyaskedwasifyou werejewish.ihadtosayyes,andtheytoldmethat,inthatcase,there'snothingposiblefornow.but don'twory.theyhavetomaintainacertainproportionofjewsandnon-jewswhentheyaward felowships,anditseemsthatatthemomentthey'vedecidedagainstawardinganytojews.buti'msure thingswilchange.it'stooobviousaninjustice.thisisn'tgermany.youcancountonmeifyouneed help,and...goodluck." ThetrainleftandIhadtogiveuptheideaofemigratingattheexpenseoftheFascistgovernment. * * *** ButbynowitwascleartomethatIhadtoleavethecountry.Idecidedtospendthesummer vacationwithmymother,fearingthatiwouldbeunabletoseeherforalongtime.togetherwewenttoa litlevilageunderthecivetawherewehadsummeredtwoyearsearlier. Manyofourrelativeswere stayinginthesamehotel.amongthemwasmychildhoodfriend,gualtieroprocaccia,hismotheranda largecolectionofhisshopkeeperunclesandtheirfamilies. ThisgroupofvacationingJewsspenttimerowingandfishinginthelake,drivingunderthe mountainpeaks,andhikingtomountainshelters.thewholetribe -men,women,andchildren -would climbintotheircars.whenthe caravanstoppedatthetrailhead,everyonegotout,dresedinthe extravagantoutfitswornbyamateurhikers-walkingsticks,cameras,andbackpacksfiledwith equipmentforthemorechalengingascents. Mymotherwasfarfromasumingthematronlyappearance ofsomanyolderwomen,andmaintainedanuncommonphysicalandintelectualagility. Butthevacationwasdisruptedbythenewspaperswhichpublishedlongcolumnsofanti-semitic propagandaeveryday.thejewishshopkeeperswereworied,nervousandafraidthattheireasylifewas comingtoanend.theyforesawpersecutionsthattheydidnothavethecouragetoface.havingno definitepoliticalphilosophy[thesewerenottherichrelativesthathadjoinednostrabandiera],they couldn'tunderstandwhatwashappening.nordidtheyhavereligiousbeliefsorasocialphilosophyto sustainthem.theyfeltlost,notknowingwheretoturnifthepeaceandcomfortthathadbeentheir consuminggoalweretobedeniedthem. Therewasclearlygoodreasonforconcern,sincetheearlylawswereevenstricterthanthosein NaziGermany. MusoliniseemedtobeafraidtomakeabadimpresiononHitlerbydemonstratingeven amodicumofhumanity;hewantedtoprovethat,eveninitaly,itwasposibletopitileslyoppres innocentvictimsthroughdrasticmeasures.thus,jewishchildrenwerecompletelybaredfromthepublic schoolsinalawthathadnocounterpartingermany.studentswhowerealreadyenroledweretobe alowedtofinishtheirstudies,butforthefuture,specialelementaryandmiddleschoolsweretobe createdforjews,andundernoconditionwouldtheybeadmitedtotheuniversity.realestateovera certainvaluewouldbeconfiscatedinexchangeforworthlesgovernmentbondsthatcouldnotbesold. 7

8 Jewswerenolongeralowedtoownbusinesesemployingmorethanonehundredworkers,andal profesionalactivitieswerebasicalyrenderedimposible,includingtheliberalprofesions. InordertopersuadeItaliansofthenecesityforsuchmeasures,thegovernmentstarteda slanderouspropagandacampaign. MostofthenewspaperarticlesweretranslatedfromNazipublications throughwhichtheitalianpeoplewereintroducedtothe"science"ofracism,andtothestudyofthe ProtocolsoftheEldersofZion.Apseudo-anthropological,pseudo-ethnological,pseudo-psychological, pseudo-sociological,pseudo-physiologicalmagazinewasintroduced(itsname,ifiremember,wasla DifesadelaRazaorInDefenseofRace).Ithadmanyilustrations-photographsofdiferentracial types,graphics,maps-someofwhichwerewordedintheoriginalgerman. Nevertheles,thegovernmentcontinuedtoinsistonthepurelyItaliannatureofthenewracist campaign.infact,theracialcampaigntookauniquelyitalianform:itdidnotwork.idon'tmeanthatthis failurewasduetoitalianineficiency.onthecontrary,itscausewastheresistanceencounteredfrom almosttheentireitalianpopulation.italiansunderstoodthattheanti-semiticcampaignwasnotrealya meansofliberatingitaliansfromjewishinfluence,butwasinsteadanewkindofsubserviencetogerman Nazism.InsteadofbecominganinstrumentofFascistpropaganda,anti-semitismbecameachannelfor thedifusionofantifascistideas. TheItalianpeoplehadnevergivenanyimportancetotheideaoftheirown"race".InItalythere wasnodiferencebetweenjewsandnon-jews,exceptfortheminordiferenceofreligion.thereforethe anti-semiticmeasuresnotonlyseemedunjust,theycausedalitalianstobeconcerned.todaythey persecutethejews,peoplesaid,andtomorow,bythesamecritieria,theymightdecidetopersecute peoplewithredhair,orpeoplenamedjohn.ajokespreadrapidly: Agovernmentleaderendedanincendiaryspeechbyforcefulydeclaring,"Wecanblameitalon thejewsandonbicyclists.""whybicyclists?"asksalistener."andwhyjews?"askedtheotherguy. Butatfirstthisoutcomecouldnotbeforeseen.Therewereseriousreasonsforconcern.Thelaws hadbeenwriten,inblackandwhite,andtherewasreasontobelievethattheywouldbeapplied rigorously.thejewishshopkeeperswereinarealpanic. Amongmyvacationingrelatives,GualtieroandIweretheonlyoneswhoshowedanykindof determinationinthefaceofposiblepersecution. Weweretheonlyonespreparedtofaceitwithdecorum. Inanycase,givenourprecociousanti-fascisttendencies,wehadnoideologicalproblemwiththeantisemiticlaws.Furthermore,webothcouldfalbackonourpoliticalbeliefs,andwehaddefinite destinationsifthesituationdeteriorated.formethebeliefwasliberty,andtheplacewasparis.forhim thebeliefwaszionism,andtheplacewaspalestine. Exceptforafewwords,IhavesaidnothingaboutGualtierosincethetimeofourvictoryinthe revoltagainstkingarthur,andofourdisappointmentinourfailedrevoltagainst Musolini. WehadbeenveryupsettofindthattheItalianpeoplehadnotfolowedour lead,andthattheydid notshareourlongingforfreedom. Wehadbeensoupsetthatwequestionedourreasoningandinour searchforanswers,webothbecameinvolvedinzionistgroups.inflorencetherewerefewzionistswho intendedtogotopalestine,butthereweremanywhowishedtosendothers,andtheydescribedthefuture Jewishstatewithgreatenthusiasm."Ifyouwantfreedom,"theysaid,"thengotoPalestine.Onlythere canyoufindfreedomthatwilmakeyouhappy." Welistenedandweresomewhatinfluencedbythem. ThenIwenttoParis,andIsawthatIcouldfindfreedomthatmademehappywithoutgoingto thepromisedland.butgualtierohadadiferentexperience,andhebecameoneoftheveryfewitalian ZionistswhoactualywenttoPalestinebeforethepersecutions. Inbrief,afterashortromanticinvolvementwithaCatholicgirl,Gualtierohadgonebacktothe Zionistgroup.TherehemetaPolishgirl(ormaybeshewasLithuanianorRusian)whohadlivedin Palestineforseveralyears.ShehadcometoItalytoatendtheuniversity,althoughshewasfiercely commitedtoreturningtothepromisedland. Myriamwasfulofidealismandadventure,andGualtiero felinlovewithher.hisfamilyopposedthemariage,whichdidnotconformtotheirbourgeoisideas, andthiswasthesourceofsomefamilyarguments. OnesummerGualtierowenttoacampwhereJewishrefugeesfromGermanyandEasternEurope werelearningtotilthesoilinthehopesofbeingable,atsometimeinthefuture,tobealowedtofarm 8

9 thesacredsoilofisrael. WhentheyrestedtheydiscusedtheTalmudandJewishritual,usingthekindof punctiliousreasoningthathasmadejewssuchgoodlawyers.naturaly,onsaturdaytheydidnotwork. SincetheBiblesaysthatonthedayofrestoneshouldnotcaryburdens,theyarguedaboutwhetherthey werealowedtoopenanumbrelaifitrained. I'msurethatalthoughGualtiero'sideaofJudaismwasnotatalreligious,heenjoyedthese discusions,sincehetendedtowardintelectualerudition.i'msurethathewasabletokeepupwiththe otherswho,onspecifictopics,wouldhavebeenmuchbeterpreparedthanhe. Duringthistime,Gualtierotrainedhisintelect,strengthenedhismuscles,andhemariedhis friend Myriaminacivilceremonyinanearbyvilage.Thefamilywasforcedtoputahappyfaceontheir badluckandtheywelcomedthenewlyweds,whowerere-mariedinareligiousceremonyatgualtiero's home.thentheyleftforpalestine.inthesummerof1938,afterlesthanayear,gualtiero'sfamily invitedthembacktoitalytospendthesummervacation. Anti-semitismwasamoralvictoryforGualtiero,whoconsidereditaconfirmationofthe necesityofzionism. AfterhisvacationheandhiswifereturnedtoPalestinewherehestilresides.[He wasstiltherein1966,profesorofcommerciallaw(?)attheuniversityofjerusalem(?)]. * * * * * AfteramonthorsointheDolomites,andashorttriptotheRiviera,IreturnedtoPadua.There,in spiteoftheuncertaintyaboutmyfuture,iresumedmylifeatthelab.anewsetofanti-semiticlawswere announcedinthemiddleofseptemberatthemeetingofthefascistgrandcouncilorthecouncilof Ministers. ManyofmyJewishfriendsanxiouslylistenedtotheradiotofindouttheirfate.Iworkedinthe labasusual. Atabouttwoo'clockintheafternoonProfesorLaura'sdaughterphoned,askingmetocomefora visitthatevening.theanti-semiticlaws,wherebyilostmypositionatthelab,hadbeenannouncedatone o'clock.afamilyoffriendswantedtoexprestheirsympathyinadificultmoment,andtodemonstrate theirdisapprovalofevents.thateveningtheyaskedmewhatiplannedtodo.ianswereddecisively,"i'l leave.i'lgotoparis,thesoonerthebeter." Duringthenextfewdays,Iavoidedsayinghelotofriendsonthestreet,afraidthattheywould notappreciatemygreeting.butinoticedthateveryonetookpainstogreetmewithaspecialwarmth.in thosedaysitwasnotunusualforpeoplewhomiknewonlybysight,tocrosthestreetandshakemy handandaskwhatmyplanswere.some,whoapproachedmesympatheticalywiththeintentionof bolsteringmyspirits,weredisappointedtoseethat,withoutdenyingmyconcerns,inevertheleshad enoughstrengthtoconfrontmysituation. WhenItoldpeoplethatIplannedtoemigrate,quiteafewofthemadvised againstit."theselaws can'tposiblybeenforced,"theysaid."they'retooobviouslyunjust.thiscan'tlast. We'renotin Germany." DuringthesebriefconversationsItriedtoliveuptowhatIthoughtwasmyobligation:tousemy situationasanopportunitytodiseminatesomeantifascistideas.ifelthonoredtobealivingexampleof Fascistinjustice.Ihadtobeabovethesituation,toconductmyselfcorectly,seriously,serenely.Ihadto speakofitaly'ssubserviencetonazism,theendofnationalindependence,andthefailureoffascismasa championofnationalism.ihadtodemonstratethatinadictatorialregime,whererulesarearbitrary,no onecanfeelsecure. InthelabIexplainedmyworktothosewhowerestayingbehind.Iprovidedinstructionssothat thescientificactivitiesoftheinstitutecouldproceedwithoutme,turningoverthedesignsforinstruments tobebuilt,givingadviceontheorderinwhichtheyshouldbebuiltandhowtoasemblethem. Mycoworkersweresurprisedatmybehavior.Oneofthemsaidthatifhewereinmyposition,hewouldn'thave woriedaboutanything,andinfacthewouldhavemadeaneforttoleaveeverythinginthegreatest posibledisaray.irespondedthatsuchsmalvendetaswereuselesandthatsciencehadnothingtodo withpolitics. 9

10 Mybehaviorhadsomesucces,notfromascientificperspective,sincethe workihadbeen involvedinoverthepastyearwasnevercompleted,butratherfromapoliticalperspective,sinceeven thoseco-workerswhotilthenhadbeenafraidtofaultfascism,begantocondemnitopenly. OnSundayIwenttoVenicetospendtimewith Marina.Itwasasadfarewelvisit.OnthePonte del'accademiashesaid,"tothinkthatthismaybethelasttimeyouseevenice."shegaveexpresionto thefeelingsihadhadalday,ateverycanal,bridge,wel,andwindow. * * * * * IwenttoFlorencetosaygood-byetomyfriendsandrelatives,andtopickupmybelongings. Giuliano,myotherchildhoodfriend,cametovisitmeathome.Hewasdespondent.HewasJewish,and hehadputalhisyouthfulfaithinfascism.hischildhooddreamshadnotliveduptohisprecocious expectations.hehadstudiedliteraturebecausehelovedit,buthisfamilywasdidn'tapprovebecausethey hadhopedthathewouldpursueamoreprofitableprofesion.butinspiteofhishonesty,andinspiteof thepresureplacedonhimbygualtieroandme,helackedacriticalsenseandhehadalowedhimselfto becaughtupinatrapoffacilepropaganda. Hisfirstwordsonthatdaywere,"Thisisyourvictoryandmydefeat."Irealythinkthatfearfor hisownsafetyandcomfortwerelesimportanttohimthanthefactofseeinghisentireideological constructcrumblebeforehiseyes.hewasamanwhosefaithhadbeenshateredfromonedaytothenext. "It'seasyforyou,"hesaid,"you'vebeenthrownoutbyyourenemies.ButI'vebeenrejectedbymyown friends.yourbeliefsendupbeingreinforced,butiamtornbydoubts."butdespitethis,hehadnot becomeanantifascist.attimeshewascomfortedbythethoughtofbeinganinnocentvictimwhoplayed anecesaryroleinthestruggleforthegloryofitaly.maybeantisemitismwasa victoryforme.it confirmedmyposition,andprovedthenecesityforthefightagainstantifascism. Idon'tthinkthatI'mproudofbeingbornJewishbut,inacertainsense,I'mgladofitbecausethis accidentofbirthkeptmefromcompromisingwithfascism.ifihadnotbeenbornjewish,todayimight befightingforhitler,andinspiteofmyprofounddislikeforhissystem,iwouldnothavebehavedmuch diferentlyfromotheritaliansoldiers.iwouldhavetriedtoavoidfighting,andgivenmyselfupasa prisoneratthefirstposibleopportunity.insteadmyjewishnesforcedmetobreakeveryconnectionwith Fascism.Italowedmetolivethelifeofafreemanforwhichmycouragealonemighthavenothave suficed. Thedaywhentheanti-semiticlawswereannouncedwas,Ican'tdenyit,adayofworysinceI didnotknowwhatlayinthefuture.butitwasalsoadayofreliefbecauseirealizedthatiwouldhaveto confrontfascismintheopen.fromthatdayon,ifeltspiritualymuchricher,andfinalyatpeacewith myownconscience,whichhadcausedmegreatremorseforthemanysmalcompromisesthatihadmade withmyenemyoverthecourseofmylife. AfterafewdaysinFlorenceIreturnedtoPaduawithmymothertosaygood-byetoMarinaand tomyfriends.thedoormanfromthelabaccompaniedmetothestationtohelpwithmyluggage.hewas soupsetbytheinjusticeofmysituation,andhisowninabilitytohelpme,thatiendedupcomfortinghim. Mymother wentwithmeto Milan.There,onSeptember11,1938,yearXVIoftheFascistera,Iboarded thetrainwhichtookmethroughthesempiontunnelontheroadtoexile. 10