vuqÿef.kdk vè;k; & 1 DBMS vksj RDBMS ifjp;

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3 vuqÿef.kdk vè;k; & 1 DBMS vksj RDBMS ifjp; vè;k; & 2 vkwjsdy RDBMS rfkk DykbaV@loZj dei;wfvax dk ifjp; vè;k; & 3 vkwjsdy lajpuk dk voyksdu vè;k; & 4 SQL*PLUS dk ifjp; vè;k; & 5 Vscy dk iz;ksx vè;k; & 6 MkVk fuczu/ vè;k; & 7 SQL esa MkVk&O;oLFkkiu vè;k; & 8 vkwjsdy iaqd'ku vè;k; & 9 tkwbu] lc&dosjh rfkk O;w vè;k; & 10 ;wtj vdkmuv O;oLFkkiu,oa bumsfdlax dh vo/kj.kk vè;k; & 11 PL/SQL izksxzkfeax dk ifjp; vè;k; & 12 dlzj vè;k; & 13 PL/SQL esa viokn fu;a=k.k vè;k; & 14 vkwjsdy VªkUtsD'ku vè;k; & 15 izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku vè;k; & 16 MkVkcsl fvªxlz vè;k; & 17 vkwjsdy MkVkcsl iz'kkld vè;k; & 18 DBA mi;ksfxrk, vè;k; & 19 vkwjsdy vfxze lqj{kk mik;

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5 1 DBMS o RDBMS dk ifjp; (Introduction to DBMS & RDBMS) DBMS o RDBMS dk ifjp; bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % MkVkcsl dk ifjp; DBMS dk ifjp; fofhkuu MkVkcsl ekwmy DBMS dh lajpuk RDBMS dk ifjp; RDBMS ds fy;s dkwm ds fu;e RDBMS ds?kvd (duszy@mkvk fmd'kujh) 1.1 MkVk (Data) fdlh dei;wvj fllve vfkok izksxzke ds lkfk dksbz Hkh dk;z djus ds fy, dqn lwpukvksa rfkk tkudkjh dh vko';drk gksrh gs] ftuds vk/kj ij dksbz x.kuk (Calculation), izfø;k (Process) br;kfn dk;z iw.kz fd, tkrs gsa rfkk gesa okafnr (Desired) ifj.kke izkir gksrs gsaa lkeku;r% ;s lhkh lwpuk,,oa tkudkfj;k fofhkuu ;wtlz (Users) }kjk iznku dh tkrh gsaa bl izdkj fofhkuu Ïksrksa ls izkir lwpukvksa rfkk tkudkjh dks MkVk (Data) dgk tkrk gsa MkVk fdlh Hkh izdkj dk gks ldrk gsa tsls& uke] la[;k] eku (Value), ifjek.k (Amount) br;kfna 1.2 MkVkcsl (Database) MkVk izr;sd dk;z dk,d vr;ar egroiw.kz rro gksrk gsa 'kq¼ ifj.kke izkir djus ds fy, ckj&ckj bldk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vr% bls fdlh lqjf{kr LFkku ij j[kuk vko';d gsa varlac¼ (Interrelated) MkVk ds bl laxzg (Collection) dks MkVkcsl dgk tkrk gsa 5

6 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy MkVkcsl dh fo'ks"krk, (Features of Database) fdlh Hkh vpns MkVkcsl eas dqn xq.kksa dk gksuk vko';d gsa MkVkcsl dk iz;ksx vdlj gh vr;ar egroiw.kz x.kukvksa (Calcutations) rfkk ysu&nsu (Transactions) ds fy, iz;qdr MkVk dks j[kus esa fd;k tkrk gsa bl MkVk dks lqjf{kr rfkk vfody (Intact) j[kuk vko';d gsa vr%,d mi;ksxh MkVkcsl dh dqn eq[; fo'ks"krk, ifjhkkf"kr dh xbz gsaa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % (A),VkWehflVh (Atomicity) MkVkcsl es a j[kk x;k MkVk, lnso 'kq¼ gksuk pkfg,a blds fy, vko';d gs fd izr;sd izfø;k ;k rks iwjh rjg liqy gks tk, vfkok izkjfehkd flfkfr es a gh jgsa dksbz Hkh VªkUtsD'ku v/wjk ugha gksuk pkfg,a bl xq.k dks MkVkcsl dh,vkwehflvh (Atomicity) dgk tkrk gsa (B) dfullvulh (Consistency) MkVkcsl esa j[kk MkVk laxr (Consistent) gksuk pkfg,a MkVk ;fn vlaxr gks] rks blls izkir ifj.kke Hkh v'kq¼ gksaxsa bl xq.k dks MkVkcsl dh dfullvulh (Consistency) dgrs gsaa (C) vkblksys'ku (Isolation) MkVkcsl esa ;g egroiw.kz gs fd fdlh,d MkVk esa gksus okys ifjorzuksa ds dkj.k dksbz Hkh vu; MkVk izhkkfor u gks tk,a ftl MkVk esa ifjorzu fd;k x;k gs] dsoy ogh MkVk izhkkfor gksuk pkfg,a vfkkzr~ izr;sd rro (Element),d&nwljs ls i`fkd gksuk vko';d gsa blh izdkj,d le; ij dsoy,d gh ysu&nsu (Transaction) fd;k tkrk gs] rkfd vu; ysu&nsu blls izhkkfor u gksaa bl xq.k dks vkblksys'ku (Isolation) dgrs gsaa (D) M~;wjsfcfyVh (Durability) vko';drk ds vuqlkj le; ij MkVkcsl eas lafpr MkVk dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vr% bl MkVk dh lqj{kk vr;ar egroiw.kz gsa blh izdkj fdlh =kqfv (Error), lel;k (Problem) vfkok foiqyrk (Failure) dh flfkfr esa MkVk dks iqu% izkir (Recover) djuk Hkh vko';d gksrk gsa vr% MkVkcsl dk MkVk cgqr yecs le; rd lqjf{kr gksuk pkfg,a fdlh Hkh lel;k vfkok foiqyrk dh flfkfr esa MkVk dks iqu% izkir dj ldus dh {kerk M~;wjsfcfyVh (Durability) dgykrh gsa fdlh Hkh vpns MkVkcsl esa mijksdr pkj xq.k gksuk vko';d gsa buds lewg dks MkVkcsl dh 'ACID' Property dgk tkrk gsa 1.4 MkVkcsl ds ykhk (Advantages of Database) MkVk ds lap; (Storage) ds fy, MkVkcsl dk iz;ksx djus ds vusd ykhk gs aa bues a ls dqn fueufyf[kr gs a % (A) leorhz vfhkxe (Concurrent Access) μ,d gh le; ij,d lkfk vusd ;wtlz }kjk MkVkcsl ij dk;z fd;k tk ldrk gsa bls dkwudjav,dlsl (Concurrent Access) dgrs gsaa (B) dsuæh; fu;a=k.k (Centralized Control) μ MkVk dh lqj{kk dks lqfuf'pr djus ds fy, bls,d gh dei;wvj (Server) ij j[kk tkrk gsa mlls tqm+ s vu; dei;wvj (Clients), usvodz ds }kjk MkVkcsl ij dk;z djrs gs aa bl izdkj,d gh dsunzh; LFkku (Centralized Location) ij MkVk dks lafpr djus ls bldk fu;a=k.k ljy gks tkrk gsa (C) lqj{kk (Security) μ MkVkcsl dks,d gh LFkku ij lafpr djus ls bls lqjf{kr j[kuk vf/d ljy gksrk gsa (D) vf/dkfjrk (Authorization) MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx vusd ;wtlz }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bu lhkh dk dk;z,oa vf/dkj vyx&vyx gksrs gsaa vr% bl ckr dk è;ku j[kuk vko';d gs fd izr;sd ;wtlz dsoy ogh dk;z dj lds] ftlds fy, mls vf/dkj iznku fd, x, gsaa bls vf/dkfjrk (Authorization) dgrs gsaa ;wtlz dks vf/dkj iznku djus dk dk;z MkVkcsl iz'kkld (Administrator) }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa (E) v[k.mrk,oa fo'oluh;rk (Integrity & Reliability) MkVkcsl ea s j[kk MkVk vukf/ñr mi;ksx ls iwjh rjg lqjf{kr gksrk gsa vr% blls MkVk dh v[k.mrk,oa fo'oluh;rk cuh jgrh gsa

7 (F) MkVk dh iqujko`fùk esa deh (Reducing the Repeatition of Data) MkVk ds ekè;e ls MkVk dks,d gh LFkku ij j[kdj bls fofhkuu ;wtlz }kjk mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa vr% izr;sd ;wtj ds fy,,d gh MkVk dks vyx&vyx dei;wvjlz ij j[kus dh vko';drk ugha gksrha blls MkVk dks lafpr djus esa yxus okys LFkku (Memory space) dh cpr gksrh gsa (G) MkVk lkj,oa Lora=krk (Data Abstraction & Independence) MkVkcsl ij dk;z djus okys izr;sd ;wtj ds fy, leiw.kz MkVkcsl ds fo"k; es a lllr tkudkjh izkir djuk vko';d ugha gksrka ;wtj dsoy MkVkcsl ds lkj (Abstraction) ds vkèkkj ij Hkh dk;z djus ds fy, Lora=k gksrk gsa 1.5 DBMS dk ifjp; (Introduction to DBMS) MkVkcsl esa lafpr (Stored) MkVk dks izkir (Access) djus rfkk bl MkVk ij dk;z djus ds fy, dqn fo'ks"k lk/uksa (Tools) rfkk fof/;ksa (Methods) dh vko';drk gksrh gsa budh lgk;rk ls MkVkcsl ij fofhkuu dk;z fd, tkrs gsaa tsls& (i) MkVkcsl es u;k MkVk tksm+uka (Addition) (ii) MkVkcsl eas lafpr MkVk eas ifjorzu djuka (Modification) (iii) MkVk dks fevkuka (Deletion) (iv) MkVkcsl eas fdlh fof'k"v MkVk dks [kkstuka (Searching) bu lhkh dk;ks± ds fy, fofhkuu VwYl (Tools) fodflr fd, x, gsa] ftudh lgk;rk ls MkVkcsl dk O;oLFkkiu djuk ljy gks tkrk gsa MkVkcsl O;oLFkkiu (Management) ls lacaf/r fofhkuu lk/uksa (Tools) rfkk fof/;ksa (Methods) ds ra=k (System) dks 'Database Management System' vfkok DBMS dgrs gsaa 1.6 lecu/ (Relationships) MkVkcsl esa lafpr fofhkuu lwpuk, fdlh u fdlh :i esa,d&nwljs ls lacaf/r gksrh gsaa,d liqy MkVkcsl O;oLFkkiu ra=k (DBMS) ds fuekz.k ds fy, MkVk ds chp vkilh laca/ (Relationship) dks igpkuuk vr;ar vko';d gksrk gsa ;g laca/ fueufyf[kr pkj izdkj dk gks ldrk gs % (A) One-to-One (B) One-to-Many (C) Many-to-One (D) Many-to-Many dksbz nks MkVk rro],d vfkok vf/d izdkj ls vkil esa lacaf/r gks ldrs gsaa,d fjys'kuf'ki lsv (Relationship set) esa leefyr bdkbz lewgksa (Entity sets) dh la[;k dks Relationship dh Degree dgk tkrk gsa mijksdr lhkh Relationships dks ;gk le>k;k x;k gs % (A) One-to-One Relationship ;fn fdlh entity set A dk izr;sd rro (Element) entity set B ds dsoy,d gh rro ls lacaf/r gs rfkk entity set B dk izr;sd rro Hkh entity set A ds dsoy,d gh rro ls lacaf/r gs] rks bl izdkj dh Releationship dks One-to-One Relationship dgk tkrk gsa bls fueufyf[kr fp=k eas n'kkz;k x;k gs % DBMS o RDBMS dk ifjp; A B a 1 b 1 a 2 b 2 a 3 b 3 One-to-One Relationship 7

8 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy One-to-One relationship dks le>us ds fy, Students rfkk Roll No. dk mnkgj.k fy;k tk ldrk gsa izr;sd Student ds fy, dsoy,d gh Roll No. gks ldrk gsa vfkkzr~ izr;sd Student dsoy,d gh Roll No. ls lacafèkr gksrk gsa blh izdkj,d Roll No. Hkh dsoy,d gh Student ls laca/ j[krk gsa (B) One-to-Many Relationship ;fn entity set A dk,d rro (Element) entity set B ds,d ls vf/d rro ds lkfk lacaf/r (Associated) gs] ijurq] entity set B dk izr;sd rro entity set A ds dsoy,d gh rro ls laca/ j[krk gs] rks bls One-to-Many Relationship dgrs gs aa bl Relationship dks fueufyf[kr fp=k ea s n'kkz;k x;k gs % A B a 1 b 1 b 2 a 2 b 3 b 4 a 3 b 5 One-to-Many Relationship,d company rfkk mles a dk;zjr dezpkfj;ks a (Employees) ds chp Realtionship, One-to- Many Relationship dk mnkgj.k gsa,d Company ea s vusd dezpkjh gksrs gs a] ijurq izr;sd dezpkjh dsoy,d gh Company ls laca/ j[krk gsa vfkkzr~ entity set Company dk izr;sd rro entity set Employee ds vusd rroks a ls lacaf/r gs] ysfdu] entity set employee ds izr;sd element dk laca/ entity set Company ds dsoy,d gh element ds lkfk gksrk gsa (C) Many-to-One Relationship ;fn entity set A ds,d ls vf/d vo;o] entity set B ds,d gh vo;o ds lkfk lacaf/r gsa] rks bls Many-to-One Relationship dgk tkrk gsa bls fueu fp=k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % A B a 1 b 1 a 2 a 3 b 2 a 4 a 5 b 3 8 Many-to-one Relationship vusd ys[kd (Authors) feydj ;fn,d iqlrd (Book) fy[kus dk dk;z dj jgs gsa] rks entity set Author rfkk Book ds chp Many-to-One Relationship gksxha (D) Many-to-Many Relationship ;fn entity-set A ds vusd vo;o entity set B ds,d ls vf/d vo;oksa ds lkfk laca/ j[krs gsa rfkk entity set B ds vusd vo;o Hkh entity set A ds

9 vusd vo;oksa ls lacaf/r gs] rks bl Relationship dks Many-to-Many Relationship dgk tkrk gsa bls fueufyf[kr fp=k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % A B DBMS o RDBMS dk ifjp; a 1 b 1 a 2 b 2 a 3 b 3 Many-to-Many Relationship,d fo kfkhz,d d{kk eas vusd fo"k; i<+rk gsa blh izdkj izr;sd fo"k; dks i<+usokys fo kffkz;ksa dh la[;k Hkh,d ls vf/d gksrh gsa vr% Students,oa Subjects ds chp Many-to-many relationship gsa 1.7 MkVkcsl ekwmy (Database Models) fdlh MkVkcsl eas lafpr MkVk ds o.kzu (Description), MkVk ds chp lecu/] Consistency Constraints br;kfn ds fy, dqn lk/uksa dh vo/kj.kk (Concept) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu vo/kj.kkvksa ds laxzg (Collection) dks MkVk ekwmy (Data Model) dgrs gsaa DBMS fl¼kar (Theory) esa vusd MkVk ekwmsy dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;s x;s gsaa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % (A) inkuqøe ekwmy (Hierarchical Model) Hierarchical MkVk ekwmy esa MkVk dks,d o`{k (Tree) dh rjg j[kk tkrk gsa ftl izdkj,d o`{k esa tm+sa (Roots), ruk] 'kk[kk, rfkk ifùk;k feydj,d lajpuk dk fuekz.k djrs gsa] mlh izdkj bl model esa Hkh MkVk dks parent-child relationship ds :i esa O;ofLFkr fd;k tkrk gsa bl model es a MkVk dks records dh,d series (Øe) dh rjg j[kk tkrk gsa fdlh fof'k"v record ds lhkh Instances,d record type ds :i es a laxzfgr gksrs gs aa bu fofhkuu record-types ds chp laca/ LFkkfir djus ds fy, Hierarchical model es a parent-child relationship dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;gk parent rfkk child record-types ds chp 1:N Relationship gksrh gsa mnkgj.k % ;fn fdlh lalfkk esa izr;sd dezpkjh (Employee) rfkk mlds ifjokj dk MkVk j[kk x;k gsa ;gk record-type employee esa name, department, salary br;kfn MkVk gksxka ;fn,d employee ds 3 children gsa] rks ;gk,d 'Employee' record type, rhu 'Children' record types ds lkfk lacaf/r (Related) gksxka bl mnkgj.k esa 'Employee' record-type,d parent rfkk 'Children' record-type,d child dks n'kkz jgk gsa Hierarchical models dks eq[;r% esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk FkkA IBM }kjk fufezr Information management system (IMS) MkVkcsl bl ekwmy dk mnkgj.k gsa (B) usvodz ekwmy (Network Model) inkuqøe ekwmy one-to-many relationship ij vk/kfjr gksrk gsa ysfdu] dqn MkVk,sls gksrs gsa] ftugsa many-to-many relationships ds }kjk ifjhkkf"kr djuk vf/d ljy gksrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, usvodz ekwmy dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa usvodz ekwmy dks vkwipkfjd rksj ij Conference On Data System Languages (CODASYL) }kjk 1971 esa ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;ka ;g ekwmy eq[;r% 'set constructs' ij vk/kfjr gksrk gsa izr;sd lsv esa,d owner record type,,d set name rfkk,d member record type gksrk gsa,d member record type,d ls vf/d lsv dk easecj gks ldrk gsa,d owner record type Hkh vu; lsv esa owner vfkok member gks ldrk gsa bl izdkj relationships ds leiw.kz usvodz esa sets dh vusd tksfm+;k (Pairs) gksrh gsaa 9

10 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 10 (C) fjys'kuy ekwmy (Relational Medol) Relational Databases ds fy, E.F. Codd }kjk,d u;k MkVk ekwmy fodflr fd;k x;ka bls fjys'kuy ekwmy dgk tkrk gsa,d fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esa fofhkuu Data Structures, Storage rfkk Access Operations,oa Integrity Constraints dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl ekwmy esa MkVk rfkk muds chp laca/ dks fofhkuu VscYl esa j[kk tkrk gsa,d Vscy vusd fjdkmz~l dk lewg gksrk gs] ftuesa ls izr;sd fjdkmz esa leku fiqym gksrh gsaa izr;sd fiqym dks Vscy ds,d&,d dkwye esa j[kk tkrk gsa,d Vscy dh izr;sd iafdr esa vf}rh; (unique) MkVk gksrk gsa tsls& ;fn,d Vscy esa 10 students dk MkVk j[kk x;k gs] rks izr;sd iafdr esa,d Student dk MkVk gksxka,d iafdr esa,d ls vf/d Students dk MkVk ugha j[kk tk,xka blh izdkj,d gh student dk MkVk,d ls vf/d iafdr;ksa esa ugha gksxka,d Vscy ds izr;sd column esa leku izdkj dh values gksrh gsaa tsls& ;fn age uked,d column cuk;k x;k gs] rks bl column esa dsoy numbers gksaxs] tks izr;sd student ds fy, age dh value n'kkzrs gsaa Table ds dqn columns dks keys ds :i esa Hkh iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa buds }kjk MkVk dks <wa<uk rfkk records dks igpkuuk ljy gks tkrk gsa (D) ekwmy (Object/Relational Model) bl izdkj ds ekwmy esa ikjeifjd (Traditional) MkVk rfkk tfvy (complex) vkwctsdv] tsls& le;&øe (Time-series), Audio, Video br;kfn dk O;oLFkkiu,d lkfk fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g RDBMS esa u, vkwctsdv dks tksm+us rfkk lafpr djus dh lqfo/k Hkh iznku djrk gsa bl ekwmy esa Data Structures ds lkfk gh fofhkuu esfkm Hkh gksrs gsa] ftudh lgk;rk ls ORDBMS Server tfvy fo'ys"k.kkred (Analytical) dk;z rfkk objects ij searching br;kfn dj ldrk gsa Object/Relational Model es a Relational Model rfkk Object-Oriented Model nksuks a dh fo'ks"krk, gksrh gsaa MkVkcsl designer u, objects ds fuekz.k,oa O;oLFkkiu dk dk;z Hkh Tables,oa Data Definition Language (DDL) br;kfn ds }kjk lgtrk ls dj ldrk gsa ORDBMS esa nks izeq[k vo;o gksrs gsa % (i) Query Language : tsls SQL, SQL3 br;kfna (ii) Call Interfaces : tsls ODBC, JDBC br;kfna (E) vkwctsdv vksfj;suvsm ekwmy (Object-Oriented Model) ORDBMS dh fø;kredrk dks Object Oriented Languueges tsls C++, Java br;kfn ds lkfk tksm+k tk ldrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, Object Oriented Model dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blds }kjk MkVkcsl dh lhkh fo'ks"krkvksa dks Object Oriented Languages dh fo'ks"krkvksa ds lkfk feykdj vuqiz;ksx (Application) rfkk MkVkcsl nksuksa dks,df=kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa blls cgqr vfèkd dksm (code) fy[kus dh vko';drk lekir gks tkrh gsaa dsoy FkksM+s ls dksm (code) }kjk leiw.kz MkVkcsl vuqiz;ksx dk fuekz.k fd;k tk ldrk gsa (F) lseh&lvªdpmz ekwmy (Semi-Structured Model) lseh&lvªdpmz ekwmy esa lkeku;r%,d Ldhek (Schema) ls lacaf/r lwpukvksa dks MkVk esa j[kk tkrk gsa bl ekwmy esa MkVk rfkk Ldhek dk fohkktu Li"V ugha gksrk rfkk ;g vuqiz;ksx ij vk/kfjr gksrk gsa bl ekwmy esa xzkiq (graphs) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ftlesa vusd yscy (labels) gksrs gsasa ;s yscy] MkVkcsl dh lajpuk Li"V djrs gsaa bl MkVk ekwmy dk iz;ksx eq[;r% osc (web) ij fd;k tkrk gsa blds vfrfjdr fofhkuu MkVkcsl ds chp MkVk ds vknku&iznku,oa fdlh lajpuk esa j[ks x, MkVk ds fy, Hkh bldk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa

11 (G) vlksfl;sfvo ekwmy (Associative Model) bl ekwmy esa oklrfod fo'o (Real-world) ds MkVk dks nks izdkj ls fohkkftr fd;k tkrk gsa & (i) Entities izr;sd entity, vu; entities ls Lora=k gksrh gsa fdlh Hkh bzdkbz (entity) dk vflrro fdlh vu; bzdkbz ij fuhkzj ugha gksrka (ii) Associations Associations ds varxzr,slk MkVk j[kk tkrk gs] tks fdlh vu; MkVk ij fuhkzj (Dependent) gksrk gsa,d associative MkVkcsl esa eq[;r% nks MkVk structures gksrs gsa& (1) Items dk,d lewg (set), ftles a izr;sd Item dk,d fofhkuu uke rfkk izdkj gksrk gsa (2) Links dk,d lewg (set), ftlesa izr;sd link ds fy,,d unique variable gksrk gsa (H),fUVVh&,VªhC;wV osy;w ekwmy (Entity-Attribute Value [EAV] Model) ;g ekwmy mijksdr lhkh ekwmy dk leuo; (Combination) gksrk gsa blesa ORDBMS, Network, Semistructured rfkk Object models dk lewg gksrk gsa lwpuk ds lap; ds fy, context uked,d CLASS dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl Class esa fofhkuu METHODS gksrs gsa rfkk CLASS ds }kjk OBJECTS dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa izr;sd Object esa FIELDS rfkk PROPER- TIES esa object dh vkarfjd lajpuk dk fooj.k j[kk tkrk gsa bl fooj.k esa izr;sd field dk uke] yeckbz] izdkj br;kfn dh tkudkjh gksrh gsa,d Context model esa rhu izeq[k MkVk&Vkbi gksrs gsaa ;s gsa & REGULAR, VIRTUAL rfkk REFERENCE. 1.8 MkVkcsl fllve vuqiz;ksx (Database System Applications) oklrfod&fo'o (Real-world) ds yxhkx lhkh {ks=kksa esa MkVkcsl fllve dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa MkVkcsl ds dqn eq[; vuqiz;ksx fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) Banking Customers, Accounts rfkk Loans br;kfn dh tkudkjh j[kus rfkk bank ds ysu nsu ds fy,a (ii) Airlines vkj{k.k (Booking) rfkk Flights ds le; (Schedule) dh tkudkjh j[kus ds fy,a (iii)universities Students, Courses, Results br;kfn dh tkudkjh j[kus ds fy,a (iv) Telecommunications fofhkuu Numbers, Calls, Bills, Pre-paid Cards br;kfn dh tkudkjh j[kus ds fy,a (v) Business Customers, Products, Sales, Purchase, Finance, Taxes br;kfn dh tkudkjh j[kus ds fy,a 1.9 DBMS lajpuk (DBMS Architecture) DBMS dh lajpuk ds fo"k; esa vusd ifjhkk"kk, nh xbz gsaa ysfdu] lkeku;r% ANSI (Americal National Standards Institute) }kjk izlrqr ifjhkk"kk dks lozeku; :i ls Lohdkj fd;k tkrk gsa ;g lajpuk eq[;r% fdlh Enterprise MkVkcsl ds fy, mi;ksx dh tkrh gsa bl ifjhkk"kk ds vuqlkj,d MkVkcsl esa MkVk ds fy, eq[;r% rhu fofhkuu views gksrs gsa % (A) External (ckgjh) view (B) Conceptual (ls¼kafrd) view (C) Internal (vkarfjd) view bl izdkj f=k&lrjh; (Three level) lajpuk ds dkj.k MkVk ds oklrfod vfkz dks ckgjh izn'kzu (external representation) rfkk HkkSfrd lajpuk ls vyx djuk,oa mls le>uk ljy gks tkrk gsa bu rhu views dks fueufyf[kr fp=k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % DBMS o RDBMS dk ifjp; 11

12 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy External Schema Conceptual Schema Internal Schema DBMS- 3 Level Architecture bl lajpuk ds rhuksa views dks ;gk le>k;k x;k gs % (A) External view ;g MkVkcsl dk og O;w gs] ftls,d fof'k"v (Individual) ;wtj }kjk ns[kk tkrk gsa MkVkcsl ds izr;sd ;wtj ds fy, ;g O;w vyx&vyx gks ldrk gsa izr;sd ;wtj dks MkVkcsl ds fdlh fof'k"v Hkkx dks ns[kus dh gh vko';drk gksrh gsa og okafnr (Desired) Sub-Database iznf'kzr dus dk dk;z external view }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa (B) Conceptual View ls¼kafrd O;w] leiw.kz enterprise dk,d ekwmy izlrqr djrk gsa ;g O;w vu; nksuksa O;w k ls vf/d flfkj gksrk gsa conceptual view leiw.kz MkVkcsl dk lkewfgd O;w gksrk gs] ftlesa MkVkcsl esa j[kh lelr tkudkjh lfeefyr gksrh gsa (C) Internal View ;g O;w MkVkcsl esa MkVk dk oklrfod physical storage iznf'kzr djrk gsa blds }kjk ;g tkudkjh izkir gksrh gs fd MkVkcsl esa D;k MkVk gs rfkk mls fdl izdkj lafpr (Store) fd;k x;k gsa MkVkcsl dh dk;zdq'kyrk (Efficiency) ij fopkj djuk bl O;w esa lokzf/ d egroiw.kz gksrk gsa Internal view, physical devices dks fofhkuu pages dk lewg ekudj muds fy, LFkku vkoafvr djrk gsa 1.10 MkVk Lora=krk (Data Independence) ls¼kafrd (Conceptual) view dks Internal view ls i`fkd djus dh lqfo/k ds dkj.k HkkSfrd lajpuk dk o.kzu fd, fcuk MkVkcsl dh rkfdzd (Logical) lajpuk dk o.kzu dj ikuk lahko gksrk gsa bls physical data independence dgrs gsaa blh izdkj external (ckgjh) O;w dks Hkh ls¼kafrd O;w ls i`fkd fd;k tk ldrk gsa External view dks izhkkfor fd, fcuk Hkh ls¼kafrd (Logical) O;w esa ifjorzu djuk lehko gsa bls Logical Independence dgrs gsaa,d DBMS dh leiw.kz lajpuk dks fueu fp=k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % 12 DBMS dh lajpuk

13 bl fp=k ds vk/kj ij ;g dgk tk ldrk gs fd DBMS esa fueufyf[kr eq[;?kvd (components) gksrs gsa % 1. MkVkcsl dks,dlsl (Access) djus ds fy,,d Query Language rfkk Data Description Language (DDL) 2. ;wtj ds funsz'kksa dk vuqokn djus ds fy,,d translator. 3.,d MkVkcsl O;oLFkkid (Manager) 4.,d iqkby O;oLFkkid 5. HkkSfrd (Physical) MkVkcsl 6. esvkmkvk (Metadata) (MkVkcsl ds ckjs esa MkVk /Data Dictionary) DBMS o RDBMS dk ifjp; 1.11 RDBMS dk ifjp; (Introduction to RDBMS) 19 vxlr 1969 dks Dr. Edgar Frank Codd (E.F.Codd) us IBM dh 'kks/ (Research) Report RJ-599 esa,d fl¼kar izlrqr fd;ka ;g fjys'kuy MkVkcsl dk fl¼kar FkkA fjys'kuy MkVkcsl,d izdkj dk,slk (DBMS) gksrk gs] ftlesa MkVk dks fofhkuu lecfu/r Vscy (Tables) ds :i esa j[kk tkrk gsa izr;sd Vscy dks,d fjys'ku (Relation) dgrs gsa rfkk ;g vusd iafdr;ksa (Rows),oa LraHkksa (Columns) ls feydj cuk gksrk gsa bl MkVkcsl vo/kj.kk esa,d gh MkVkcsl dks fofhkuu izdkj ls nss[kk tk ldrk gs] D;ksafd blesa MkVk dh relationships rfkk mugsa MkVkcsl ls fudkyus (Extraction) ds fy, cgqr de /kj.kkvksa (Assumptions) dh vko';drk gksrh gsa vr% RDBMS cgqr vf/d 'kkfdr'kkyh (Powerful) gksrs gsaa Relation (Table) Attributes (Columns) define field values that the relation will store. Customer - ID Custumer-Name Region Status... Tuples (Rows) contain actual data values Intersection of a column and a row is a field that contains a value,d fjys'ku ds eq[;?kvd 1.12 RDBMS ds fy, dkwm ds fu;e (Codd's Rules for RDBMS) Dr. E.F. Codd us 1985 esa 12 fu;e (Rules) izdkf'kr fd,] ftuds }kjk,d vkn'kz (Ideal) fjys'kuy MkVkcsl dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa ;s fu;e fueufyf[kr gs % (1) lwpuk dk fu;e (The Information Rule) fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esa lelr lwpukvksa dks dsoy Vscy ds :i esa gh j[kk tkuk pkfg,a (2) Guaranteed Access Table Name, ^izk;ejh&dh* (Primary key) rfkk dkwye uke br;kfn ds vk/kj ij MkVkcsl ds izr;sd MkVk dks,dlsl fd;k tk lduk lqfuf'pr gksuk pkkfg,a Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- MkVkcsl D;k gs\ 2- Many-to-many relationship D;k gksrs gsa\ 13

14 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 14 (3) Systematic Treatment of Null Values (Null values dk O;ofLFkr fu:i.k) μ vizkir (Missing) tkudkjh dks,d O;ofLFkr in~/fr ls iznf'kzr djus ds fy, relational MkVkcsl esa Null values ds fl¼kar dk lefkzu (Support) fd;k tkrk gsa ;g Null value fdlh Hkh MkVk&Vkbi ds fy, nh tk ldrh gsaa gkykafd Null value fl¼kar Primary key ij ykxw ugha gksrka (4) Dynamic Online Catlog Based on Relational Model (Relational Model ij vk/ kfjr Dynamic online catalog) ftu Tools ds vk/kj ij fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esa MkVk dks,dlsl fd;k tkrk gs] mugha Tools ds vk/kj ij MkVkcsl dh lajpuk (Structure) dks Hkh,Dlsl djus dh lqfo/k gksuk vfuok;z gsa ;g dk;z lkeku;r% dqn fo'ks"k System Tables esa structure definition dks lafpr djds fd;k tkrk gsa (5) Comprehensive MkVk Sublanguage Rule (folr`r MkVk mi&hkk"kk fu;e) μ izr;sd MkVkcsl ds }kjk Li"V :i ls ifjhkkf"kr de ls de,d Hkk"kk dk lefkzu (support) fd;k tkuk pkfg,] ftlesa Data definition (ifjhkk"kk) Data manipulation (ifjorzu) Data integrity (v[k.mrk) rfkk Database transaction control (fu;a=k.k) dks lfeefyr fd;k x;k gksa bl izdkj dh folr`r sublanguage ds :i esa lhkh O;kolkf;d (Relational) MkVkcsl Standerd SQL (Structured Query Language) dk iz;ksx djrs gsaa (6) View Updating Rule MkVk dks fofhkuu rkfdzd (Logical) lewgksa }kjk izlrqr fd;k tk ldrk gsa views dgrs gsaa izr;sd O;w }kjk MkVk manipulations dh,d leku full range dk lefkzu fd;k tkuk pkfg,] ftlds ikl,d Vscy ds fy, direct access miyc/ gksa (7) High Level Insert, Update and Delete (mpplrjh; Insert, Update rfkk Delete) Relational MkVkcsl esa Insert, rfkk delete operations (dk;ks±) dks MkVk ds izr;sd,sls lewg ij ykxw fd;k tk lduk lehko gksuk pkfg,] ftldk iz;ksx MkVk dks fudkyus (Retrieval) ds fy, fd;k tk ldrk gksa (8) Physical Data Independence MkVkcsl ls lwpuk, izkir djus rfkk mlesa lafpr djus dh HkkSfrd (Physical) fof/;k ;wtj ls Lora=k gksuh pkfg,a HkkSfrd lajpuk (Hardware, Disk Storage fof/ br;kfn) ij fd, x, fdlh Hkh ifjorzu dk izhkko ;wtj }kjk MkVk izkir djus ds fy, iz;qdr i¼fr ij ugha im+uk pkfg,a (9) Logical Data Independence MkVkcsl dh rkfdzd (Logical) lajpuk vfkkzr~ Vscy esa fd, x, ifjorzu dk izhkko MkVk dks ns[kus dh i¼fr ij ugha im+uk pkfg,a (10) Integrity Independence ;wtj }kjk buiqv fd, tk jgs MkVk dh v[k.mrk dks cuk, j[kus ds fy, MkVkcsl Hkk"kk esa fu;ked (Constraints) gksus pkfg,a (11) forj.k Lora=krk (Distribution Independence) ;wtj dks bl ckr ls iw.kzr% vufhkk gksuk pkfg, fd MkVkcsl forfjr (distributed) gs ;k ughaa (12) Non-Subversion Rule MkVkcsl Hkk"kk ds vfrfjdr MkVkcsl lajpuk dks ifjofrzr djus dh dksbz Hkh vu; i¼fr ugha gksuh pkfg,a mijksdr 12 fu;e,d vkn'kz fjys'kuy MkVkcsl dks ifjhkkf"kr djrs gsaa ijurq izk;ksfxd rksj ij (Practically) dksbz Hkh DBMS bu lhkh fu;eksa dks,d lkfk iw.kz ugha djrka 1.13 RDBMS dh fo'ks"krk, (Features of RDBMS) RDBMS dh dqn eq[; fo'ks"krk, fueufyf[kr gsa % (1) Tabular Data Model RDBMS esa MkVk dks Vscy esa j[kk tkrk gsa vr% bls le>uk cgqr ljy gksrk gs rfkk lkfk gh] ;g cgqr 'kfdr'kkyh Hkh gksrk gsa

15 (2) A Standard Language RDBMS esa MkVkcsl ij dk;z djus ds fy,,d ekud Hkk"kk dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] ftls le>uk rfkk mi;ksx djuk vr;ar ljy gksrk gsa mnkgj.k % SQL (3) Higher Quality RDBMS esa mpp xq.koùkk okys fo'oluh; lk/uksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] ftuesa foiqyrk dh lehkkouk vr;ar de gksrh gsa (4) High Nulber of Transactions RDBMS esa ysu&nsu izfø;kvksa (Transaction Processes) dks iw.kz djus dh xfr cgqr vf/d gksrh gsa vr% de le; esa vf/d dk;z iw.kz fd, tk ldrs gs aa (5) Parallel Operations RDBMS,d lkfk gksus okys lekukurj dk;ks± dk Hkh lefkzu djrk gsa (6) Distrubuted Database vko';drk ds vuqlkj MkVkcsl dks fofhkuu dei;wv~lz ij forfjr djds Hkh j[kk tk ldrk gsa 1.14 RDBMS?kVd (RDBMS Components) RDBMS dks eq[;r% Client/Server fllve ds fy, gh cuk;k x;k gsa bl fllve esa lozj lhkh ;wtlz] izksxzke rfkk fllve ds lalk/uksa (Resources) dks fu;af=kr (Control),oa O;ofLFkr (Manage) djus dk dk;z djrk gsa ;wtj }kjk fn, x, vkns'kksa (Commands) dks fø;kfuor djus dk;z DykbaV }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa RDBMS lajpuk (Structure) ds nks eq[; Hkkx gksrs gsaa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % (A) Kernel (B) Data Dictionary Kernel,d lkwývos;j gs] tks MkVkcsl ds O;oLFkkiu (Management) dk dk;z djrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, kernel dks fofhkuu MkVk-structures dh vko';drk gksrh gsa bugsa Data Dictionary esa j[kk tkrk gsa Kernel rfkk Data Dictionary dks ;gk folrkj ls le>k;k x;k gs % (A) RDBMS Kernel,d RDBMS dks,d Operating System vfkok vusd NksVs&NksVs fllvel dk,d lewg ekuk tk ldrk gsa bls fof'k"v :i ls MkVk,Dlsl dks fu;af=kr djus ds fy, cuk;k tkrk gsa MkVk dks fmld ij lafpr djuk] mls izkir djuk rfkk MkVk dh lqj{kk RDBMS ds izkfkfed dk;z gsaa,d Operating System dh gh rjg RDBMS kernel Hkh MkVkcsl ij,d lkfk dk;z dj jgs fofhkuu ;wtlz ds chp lalk/uksa dh igqap (Access) rfkk mi;ksx dks fu;af=kr djrk gsa RDBMS kernal ds mi&ra=k (sub-systems) fofhkuu lalk/uksa tsls& eseksjh] CPU, midj.k (Devices) rfkk iqkby fllve br;kfn dks,dhñr (Integrated) djrs gsaa blds vfrfjdr RDBMS Kernel fueufyf[kr dk;z Hkh djrk gs % (1) ;g lhkh vf/dkfjd (Authorized) ;wtj rfkk muds vf/dkjksa (Privileges) dh lwph j[krk gsa (2) ;g eseksjh ds'k (Cache) rfkk paging dk O;oLFkkiu djrk gsa (3) lalk/uksa ds ledkfyd (Concurrent) iz;ksx ds fy, Locking dks fu;af=kr djrk gsa (4) fllve lajpukvksa (Structures) esa iz;qdr LFkku (used space) dk O;oLFkkiu Hkh RDBMS kernel }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa DBMS o RDBMS dk ifjp; Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 3- MkVkcsl lajpuk ds rhu çeq[k Views D;k gsa \ 4- Data-Dictionary D;k gksrk gs\ 15

16 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy RDBMS mi&fllve 16 (B) Data Dictionary,d RDBMS esa vusd izdkj ds vkwctsdv~l gksrs gsa] ftugsa fofhkuu ;wtlz }kjk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu lhkh vkwctsdv~l rfkk ;wtlz dks fu;af=kr (Control) djus rfkk leiw.kz fllve ds O;oLFkkiu dk dk;z,d MkVkcsl iz'kkld (Administrator) }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa fllve rfkk laxbu (Organization) dh vko';drk ds vuqlkj RDBMS ds vkwctsdv dh lajpuk rfkk mudk iz;ksx djus okys ;wtlz dh la[;k,oa vf/dkj br;kfn esa le; ij ifjorzu gksrs jgrs gsaa vr% leiw.kz RDBMS ra=k dh lelr lwpuk,,oa tkudkfj;k MkVkcsl iz'kkld ds ikl gksuk vko';d gsa RDBMS esa blds fy, 'Data Dictionary' uked Hkkx (Component) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ftl izdkj,d 'kcn&dks'k (Dictionary) esa fdlh Hkk"kk ls lacaf/r lelr 'kcnksa dh tkudkjh gksrh gs] mlh izdkj RDBMS dh Data Dictionary eas leiw.kz RDBMS ra=k dh lajpuk] mlesa j[ks x, vkwctsdv~l rfkk fofhkuu ;wtlz ds ckjs esa leiw.kz tkudkjh j[kh tkrh gsa fdlh vu; MkVk ds ckjs esa dksbz tkudkjh nsus okys MkVk dks esvkmkvk (Metadata) dgk tkrk gsa vr% Data Dictionary olrqr% og LFkku gs] tgk RDBMS dk ^esvkmkvk* j[kk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy eas Data Dictionary Vscy rfkk MkVkcsl vkwctsdv~l dk,d lewg gksrh gs] ftls MkVkcsl ij system tablespace esa j[kk tkrk gsa Data Dictionary esa nks izdkj ds Tables gksrs gsa % (i) Base Tables Base tables, os MkVkcsl Vscy gsa] ftuesa MkVkcsl ls lacaf/r MkVk vfkkzr~ (Metadata) j[kk tkrk gsa (ii) User Accessible View Base tables esa MkVk ftl izdkj j[kk x;k gs] mls mlh izdkj ns[kus ij bls le> ikuk FkksM+k dfbu gksrk gsa vr% ;wtj dh lqfo/k ds fy, bl MkVk dks lqxe (Accessible) cukus ds fy, O;w dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa user accessible views ds }kjk MkVk,sls :i esa fn[kk;k tkrk gs] ftlls ;wtj ds fy, mls le>uk ljy gksa Data Dictionary esa RDBMS ra=k ls lacaf/r vr;ar egroiw.kz,oa vko';d esvkmkvk gksrk gsa blesa dksbz ifjorzu vfkok =kqfv mriuu gksus ij MkVkcsl {kfrxzlr,oa izhkkfor gks ldrk gsa vr% dsoy

17 MkVkcsl iz'kkld vfkok dqn egroiw.kz ;wtlz dks gh Data dictionary dks,dlsl djus rfkk mlesa ifjorzu djus dk vf/dkj fn;k tkrk gsa lkjka'k (Summary) fofhkuu Ïksrksa ls izkir lwpukvksa rfkk tkudkjh dks MkVk (Data) dgk tkrk gsa varlac¼ (Interrelated) MkVk ds bl laxzg (Collection) dks MkVkcsl dgk tkrk gsa MkVkcsl esa j[kk x;k MkVk, lnso 'kq¼ gksuk pkfg,a MkVkcsl esa j[kk MkVk laxr (Consistent) gksuk pkfg,a MkVkcsl esa ;g egroiw.kz gs fd fdlh,d MkVk esa gksus okys ifjorzuksa ds dkj.k dksbz Hkh vu; MkVk izhkkfor u gks tk,a fdlh Hkh lel;k vfkok foiqyrk dh flfkfr esa MkVk dks iqu% izkir dj ldus dh {kerk M~;wjsfcfyVh (Durability) dgykrh gsa MkVkcsl O;oLFkkiu (Management) ls lacaf/r fofhkuu lk/uksa (Tools) rfkk fof/;ksa (Methods) ds ra=k (System) dks 'Database Management System' vfkok DBMS dgrs gsaa fdlh MkVkcsl eas lafpr MkVk ds o.kzu (Description), MkVk ds chp lecu/] Consistency Constraints br;kfn ds fy, dqn lk/uksa dh vo/kj.kk (Concept) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu vo/kj.kkvksa ds laxzg (Collection) dks MkVk ekwmy (Data Model) dgrs gsaa f=k&lrjh; (Three level) lajpuk ds dkj.k MkVk ds oklrfod vfkz dks ckgjh izn'kzu (external representation) rfkk HkkSfrd lajpuk ls vyx djuk,oa mls le>uk ljy gks tkrk gsa fjys'kuy MkVkcsl,d izdkj dk,slk (DBMS) gksrk gs] ftlesa MkVk dks fofhkuu lecfu/ r Vscy (Tables) ds :i esa j[kk tkrk gsa Dr. E.F. Codd us 1985 esa 12 fu;e (Rules) izdkf'kr fd,] ftuds }kjk,d vkn'kz (Ideal) fjys'kuy MkVkcsl dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa Kernel,d lkwývos;j gs] tks MkVkcsl ds O;oLFkkiu (Management) dk dk;z djrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, kernel dks fofhkuu MkVk-structures dh vko';drk gksrh gsa bugsa Data Dictionary esa j[kk tkrk gsa,d Operating System dh gh rjg RDBMS kernel Hkh MkVkcsl ij,d lkfk dk;z dj jgs fofhkuu ;wtlz ds chp lalk/uksa dh igqap (Access) rfkk mi;ksx dks fu;af=kr djrk gsa RDBMS dh Data Dictionary eas leiw.kz RDBMS ra=k dh lajpuk] mlesa j[ks x, vkwctsdv~l rfkk fofhkuu ;wtlz ds ckjs esa leiw.kz tkudkjh j[kh tkrh gsa fdlh vu; MkVk ds ckjs esa dksbz tkudkjh nsus okys MkVk dks esvkmkvk (Metadata) dgk tkrk gsa Lo&Áxfr tk p ds Á'uksa ds mÿkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. MkVk izr;sd dk;z dk,d vr;ar egroiw.kz rro gksrk gsa 'kq¼ ifj.kke izkir djus ds fy, ckj&ckj bldk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vr% bls fdlh lqjf{kr LFkku ij j[kuk vko';d gsa varlac¼ (Interrelated) MkVk ds bl laxzg (Collection) dks MkVkcsl dgk tkrk gsa 2. ;fn entity-set A ds vusd vo;o entity set B ds,d ls vf/d vo;oksa ds lkfk laca/ j[krs gsa rfkk entity set B ds vusd vo;o Hkh entity set A ds vusd vo;oksa ls lacaf/r gs] rks bl Relationship dks Many-to-Many Relationship dgk tkrk gsa DBMS o RDBMS dk ifjp; 17

18 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 3.,d MkVkcsl esa MkVk ds fy, eq[;r% rhu fofhkuu views gksrs gsa % (A) External (ckgjh) view (B) Conceptual (ls¼kafrd) view (C) Internal (vkarfjd) view 4. RDBMS dh Data Dictionary eas leiw.kz RDBMS ra=k dh lajpuk] mlesa j[ks x, vkwctsdv~l rfkk fofhkuu ;wtlz ds ckjs esa leiw.kz tkudkjh j[kh tkrh gsa fdlh vu; MkVk ds ckjs esa dksbz tkudkjh nsus okys MkVk dks esvkmkvk (Metadata) dgk tkrk gsa vh;kl (Exercise) 1. DBMS D;k gs\ blds eq[; ykhkksa dk o.kzu dhft,a 2. DBMS dh lajpuk dk o.kzu dhft,a 3. MkVkcsl dh 'ACID' property dk D;k egro gs\ 4. Physical rfkk logical data independence esa vurj Li"V djsaa 5. fofhkuu MkVk ekwmyksa dks le>kb;sa 6. fdlh MkVkcsl ds izeq[k dk;z (Functions) D;k gksrs gsa\ 7. MkVkcsl ds fofhkuu O;w k dks le>kb;sa 8. Data dictionary dh O;k[;k dhft,a 9. RDBMS ds fy, Codd ds fu;e D;k gsa\ 10. RDBMS ds fofhkuu Hkkxksa dk o.kzu dhft,a 18

19 2 vkwjsdy RDBMS rfkk dei;wfvax dk ifjp; (Introduction to Oracle RDBMS And Client/Server Computing) vkwjsdy RDBMS rfkk dei;wfvax dk ifjp; bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % vkwjsdy dk ifjp; vkwjsdy 9i dh fo'ks"krk, vkwjsdy mrikn fooj.k DykbaV@loZj dei;wfvax dk ifjp; vkwjsdy rfkk DykbaV@loZj dei;wfvax 2.1 vkwjsdy dk ifjp; (Introduction to Oracle) vkwjsdy orzeku le; esa fo'o dk lokzf/d izpfyr (Popular),oa 'kfdr'kkyh (Powerful) fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esusteasv fllve (RDBMS) gsa RDBMS dk fl¼kar lozizfke Dr. Edgar Frank Codd }kjk izlrqr fd;k x;ka ;g fl¼kar 19 vxlr 1969 dks International Business Machines (IBM) uked deiuh ds 'kks/&i=k (Research Report) RJ-599 esa izdkf'kr gqvka RDBMS fl¼kar ds vuqlkj MkVk Items dks VscYl ds :i esa j[kk tkrk gsa rfkk muds chp laca/ (Relationship) LFkkfir fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh RDBMS ds fy, Dr. Codd us 12 fu;e (Rules) izlrqr fd;s] ftugsa dkwm ds fu;e (Codd's rules) dgk tkrk gsa ls¼kafrd :i ls dsoy mlh DBMS dks RDBMS ekuk tk ldrk gs] tks bu lhkh fu;eksa dk ikyu djrk gksa ijurq] iz;ksfxd rksj ij (Practically) vc rd fdlh Hkh DBMS ds fy, bu lhkh 12 fu;eksa dks,d lkfk iw.kz dj ikuk lehko ugha gks ldk gsa 19

20 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 20 twu esa Dr. Codd us,d vu; fuca/ (Paper) izlrqr fd;ka bldk 'kh"kzd Fkk 'A Relational Model of Data for Large Shard Data Banks'-IBM }kjk izks;ksftr bl fjys'kuf'ki ekwmy dks RDBMS ds vkn'kz (Definitive) ekwmy ds :i esa eku;rk izkir gqbza Dr. Codd }kjk izlrqr bl ekwmy esa laxzfgr MkVk dk izca/u djus ds fy, IBM us,d ubz Hkk"kk fodflr dha bls 'Structured English QUEry Language (SEQUEL) uke fn;k x;ka ;g Hkk"kk ckn esa 'Structured Query Language' (SQL) ds uke ls vf/d izfl¼ gqbza 1979 esa fjys'kuy lkwývos;j uked,d company }kjk SQL ds fø;kuo;u ds fy, bldk izfke O;kolkf;d laldj.k izlrqr fd;ka ckn esa fjys'kuy lkwývos;j dk uke cnydj vkwjsdy dkwikszjs'ku (Oracle Corporation) j[kk x;ka vkt ;g fo'o ds vxz.kh lalfkkuksa esa ls,d gsa vkwjsdy dkwikszjs'ku (Oracle Corporation) dk,d mrikn (Product) 'ORACLE' vkt fo'o dk lokzf/d izpfyr] lozj vk/kfjr] cgq&iz;ksdrk (multiuser) RDBMS gsa lkfk gh] ;g fo'o dk,slk,dek=k RDBMS gs] tks Codd ds 12 esa ls 11 fu;eksa dks iw.kz djrk gsa vu; dksbz Hkh RDBMS, 10 ls vf/d fu;eksa dks iw.kz dj ikus esa l{ke ugha gsa le; ds lkfk&lkfk vkwjsdy RDBMS ds fofhkuu laldj.k izlrqr fd, x, gsaa oracle 11g bldk uohure laldj.k gsa ijurq orzeku le; esa 'Oracle 9i' uked laldj.k gh lokzf/d izpfyr gsa 2.2 vkwjsdy 9i dh fo'ks"krk, (Features of Oracle 9i) vkwjsdy dk 9i laldj.k bldk lokzf/d izpfyr laldj.k gsa bldh dqn izeq[k fo'ks"krk, (Features) fueufyf[kr gs a% (A) vr;f/d eseksjh lefkuz (Very Large Memory Support) Oracle 9i dk Windows Operating System ds fy, fufezr laldj.k (9.2) Very Large Memory (VLM) uked lajpuk dk iz;ksx djrk gsa VLM ds }kjk Oracle 9i Windows rfkk Windows - XP esa 4GB ls Hkh vf/d eseksjh dks izkir (Access) dj ldrk gsa blds fy, Oracle 9i }kjk Windows rfkk Windows XP esa var%fufezr (Built-in) Address Windowing Extension (AWE) dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (B) ;wtj LFkkukarj.k lqfo/k (User Migration Utility) ;g,d uohu dek.m ykbu lk/u (Tool) gsa bldh lgk;rk ls LFkkuh; (Local) vfkok ckgjh (External) ;wtlz dks ljyrk ls Enterprise Users ds :i esa ifjofrzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa (C) vkwjsdy 'ks;mz lozj izfø;k (Oracle Shared Server Process) ;g,d lozj fou;kl (server configuration) gsa bldh lgk;rk ls fofhkuu ;wtj izfø;kvksa (Processes) }kjk lozj izfø;kvksa dks 'ks;j fd;k tk ldrk gsa blds fy, ;wtj izfø;kvksa dks 'Dispatcher' uked,d Background izfø;k ds lkfk tksm+k tkrk gsa ;g dispatcher, ;wtj dh ek x (Request) dks miyc/ 'ks;mz lozj izkslsl ij Hkst nsrk gsa vkwjsdy esa 'ks;mz lozj izkslsl ds }kjk,d MkVkcsl ij,d lkfk 10,000 ls Hkh vf/d la;kstu (Connections) LFkkfir fd, tk ldrs gsaa (D) vkwjsdy usv&efyviysfdlax rfkk dusd'ku iwfyax (Oracle Net Multiplexing and Connection Pooling) bl lqfo/k ds }kjk,d cgqr cm+h lajpuk es a vf/d la[;k es a ;wtlz dks,d MkVkcsl ds lkfk tksm+k tk ldrk gsa (E) vkwjsdy fj;y,iyhds'ku DylVlZ (Oracle Real Application Clusters) vkwjsdy dh bl fo'ks"krk ds }kjk MkVkcsl ij dusd'ku dh la[;k dks vizr;kf'kr :i ls c<+k;k tk ldrk gsa bl lqfo/k ds }kjk vusd lozj dei;wvj,d gh (Same) MkVkcsl iqkby dks izkir (Access) dj ldrs gsaa bl izdkj ;wtj dusd'ku dh la[;k gtkjksa rd c<+ tkrh gs rfkk lkfk gh] blds }kjk Input rfkk Output nksuksa esa gh vr;f/d o`f¼ gksrh gsa

21 2.3 vkwjsdy mrikn fooj.k (Oracle Product Details) vkwjsdy MkVkcsl eas lafpr MkVk ds lkfk dk;z djus ds fy, vkwjsdy dkikszjs'ku }kjk fofhkuu mrikn (Products) izlrqr fd, x, gsaa ;wtj rfkk MkVkcsl ds chp buvjiqsl (Interface) iznku djus okys bu mriknksa dks vkwjsdy buvjiqsl midj.k dgk tkrk gsa bugsa fueufyf[kr Jsf.k;ksa esa j[kk tk ldrk gs % vkwjsdy RDBMS rfkk DykbaV@loZj dei;wfvax dk ifjp; (A) Application Development Tools (B) Database Utilities (C) Connectivity and Middleware Products (D) Database Engine (E) Typical Development Environment bu lhkh Jsf.k;ksa rfkk buesa miyc/ fofhkuu VwYl dks ;gk le>k;k x;k gs % (A) vuqiz;ksx fodkl midj.k (Application Development Tools) bl Js.kh esa,sls fofhkuu VwYl lfeefyr gsa] tks,d vuqiz;ksx (Application) ds fodkl esa lgk;d gksrs gsaa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) SQL bldk iwjk uke Structured Query Language gsa SQL esa Tables, Records, Permissions rfkk Queries ls lacaf/r fofhkuu vkns'k (Commands) gksrs gsaa tsls& CREATE, ALTER, DROP, SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, GRANT,oa REVOKE br;kfna (ii) SQL*PLUS ;g SQL dk,d folrkfjr (Extended) laldj.k gsa bls SQL dk Super- Set dgk tk ldrk gsa blesa 100 ls Hkh vf/d Commands gksrh gsaa (iii) PL/SQL ;g OOP ij vk/kfjr,d izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk gs] ftldk iz;ksx vkwjsdy es a SQL ds lkfk fd;k tkrk gsa (iv) Developer bl mrikn esa Forms, Reports rfkk Graphics ds fodkl ds fy, Oracle*Forms, Oracle*Reports,oa Oracle*Graphics uked VwYl gksrs gsaa bls IDS Hkh dgk tkrk gsa (v) CASE Designer CASE dk iwjk uke Computer Aided Software Engineering gsa bl midj.k dk iz;ksx Computer Aided Designs (CAD), Data-Flow Diagrams (DFD) br;kfn ds fuekz.k esa fd;k tkrk gsa (vi) Oracle Designer 2000 Designer 2000 esa CASE VwYl ds lkfk IDS (Developer 2000) dks la;ksftr fd;k x;k gsa (vii) Oracle*Book ;g,d Graphical Tool gs] ftldk iz;ksx Hypertext {kerkvksa okys On-line Documents ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa (viii) CASE*Dictionary bl mrikn esa fofhkuu O;kikfjd fu;eksa] fø;kred vkwmy rfkk MkVk ekwmyl dks j[kk tkrk gsa budk iz;ksx,d vuqiz;ksx ds fodkl ls lacaf/r dk;ks± ds O;oLFkkiu esa gksrk gsa (ix) CASE*Generation ;g,d code generation tool gsa blds }kjk CASE*Dictionary esa lafpr lwpukvksa dh lgk;rk ls Data entry, Forms, Reports rfkk Graphics br;kfn dks fodflr fd;k tkrk gsa (x) Programmer 2000 bl Tool esa pro*precompiler routines dh ykbczjh rfkk vu; lqfo/k, gksrh gsa] ftugsa C, C++, FORTRAN, JAVA, ADA, COBOL rfkk vu; Hkk"kkvksa ds lkfk tksm+dj vkwjsdy MkVkcsl dks,dlsl fd;k tk ldrk gsa 21

22 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 22 (B) MkVkcsl lqfo/k, (Database Utilities) vkwjsdy MkVkcsl ls lacaf/r lqfo/k, iznku djus okys dqn mrikn fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) (ii) (iii) Enterprise Manager ;g vkwjsdy MkVkcsl ds O;oLFkkiu ds fy, GUI (Graphical User Interface) ij vk/kfjr lqfo/kvksa (Utilities) dk laxzg gksrk gsa SQL*DBA bl dk iz;ksx MkVkcsl iz'kkld (DBA) }kjk MkVkcsl fø;kvksa dks ns[kus,oa MkVkcsl ds izn'kzu (Performance) esa o`f¼ ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa Export/Import bu Command Line lqfo/kvksa dk iz;ksx vkwjsdy MkVkcsl rfkk Machine readable files ds chp MkVk ds vknku&iznku ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa (iv) SQL*Loader ;g,d Command-line lqfo/k gs] ftlds }kjk ASCII vfkok Binary MkVk iqkby dks vkwjsdy MkVkcsl ij yksm (load) fd;k tk ldrk gsa (v) Oracle*Terminal bldk iz;ksx lelr vkwjsdy VwYl ds fy, ;wtj buvjiqsl rfkk ^dh&cksmz* dks ifjofrzr djus esa fd;k tkrk gsa (C) dusfdvfovh rfkk fefmyos;j mrikn (Connectivity and Middleware Products) vkwjsdy ds dqn mrikn fofhkuu dei;wvlz ds chp la;kstu,oa MkVk ds vknku&iznku es a lgk;d gksrs gs aa bugs a Connectivity & Middleware mrikn dgk tkrk gsa ;s fueufyf[kr gs a % (i) SQL*Net and Net8 ;g,d lapkj Mªkboj gs] ftldh lgk;rk ls fdlh DykbaV e'khu ij dk;zjr dksbz vkwjsdy Vwy fdlh vu; lozj e'khu ls MkVk dks,sdlsl dj ldrk gsa (ii) SQL*Connect and Oracle Gateway ;g,d lapkj Mªkboj gs] ftldh lgk;rk ls fdlh DykbaV e'khu ij dk;zjr,d vkwjsdy Vwy fdlh lozj e'khu ls dksbz Non-Oracle data (tsls&db2 vfkok MS-SQL Server dk data) izkir dj ldrk gsa (iii) Oracle Server ;g vkwjsdy RDBMS dk,d Hkkx gs] tks,d MkVkcsl lozj ij dk;z djrk gsa ;g lozj] fofhkuu DykbaV e'khu ls fuosnu izkir djds] mugsa vkwjsdy RDBMS ij Hkstrk gs rfkk vkwjsdy RDBMS }kjk izkir ifj.kkeksa dks iqu% DykbaV e'khuksa ij Hkstk tkrk gsa (iv) Oracle ODBC Driver ;g Open Database Connectivity Driver gsa bldh lgk;rk ls fdlh lkwývos;j dks ODBC ekudkas (Standards) ds }kjk vkwjsdy MkVkcsl ls tksm+k tk ldrk gsa (D) vkwjsdy MkVkcsl batu (Oracle Database Engine) Oracle Relational Database Engine dks Oracle Universal Server Hkh dgk tkrk gsa bles fjys'kuy MkVk ds O;oLFkkiu ds lkfk gh vu; vusd fodyi miyc/ gksrs gsaa bugsa Cartridges dgk tkrk gsa ;s fodyi fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) Oracle Web-Application Server ;g,d HTTP lozj gs] ftls vkwjsdy RDBMS ds lkfk tksm+k tkrk gsa blds }kjk World Wide Web ij vk/kfjr vuqiz;ksx (Applications) HTML Forms,oa tkok dh lgk;rk ls MkVkcsl ij flfkr MkVk ds lkfk dk;z dj ldrs gs aa (ii) Spatial Data Cartridge bldh lgk;rk ls lkef;d (Temoral) rfkk vkdk'kh; (Spatial) MkVk j[kk tk ldrk gsa bldk iz;ksx eq[;r% HkkSxksfyd lwpuk ra=k (Geogpraphic Information System) esa fd;k tkrk gsa (iii) Video Cartridge fofm;ks dks Real-Time ds nksjku lafpr djus ds fy, bldk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (iv) Context Cartridge ;g Text document dks lafpr,oa izkir djus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (v) Messaging Option ;g,d groupware lajpuk gs] tks RDBMS esa lcls mij gksrh gsa

23 (vi) OLAP Option OLAP dk iwjk uke 'On-Line Analytical Processing' gsa ;g Tool, online fo'ys"k.k izfø;k esa lgk;d gksrk gsa (vii) Object Option blds }kjk tfvy vkwctsdv~l dks Hkh MkVkcsl ij lafpr fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl fodyi esa Server & Client side Methods, Inheritance, Encapsulation br;kfn Object oriented fo'ks"krk, lfeefyr gksrh gsaa (E) Typical Development Environment vkwjsdy MkVkcsl dh lgk;rk ls fdlh vuqiz;ksx (Application) dks fodflr djus ds fy, vkwjsdy RDBMS rfkk fofhkuu fodkl midj.kksa dh vko';drk gksrh gsa lkfk gh] vkwjsdy ds vfrfjdr fdlh vu; deiuh }kjk fodflr Tools tsls& Power Builder, Visual Basic rfkk JAVA dk iz;ksx Hkh Application Development esa tk ldrk gsa bugsa 'Front End' dgk tkrk gsa,dy iz;ksdrk okrkoj.k (Single user environment) es a fodkl dk dk;z personal oracle ds }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gsa cgq&iz;ksdrk okrkoj.k (Multi-user environment) es a fodkl ds fy, lozj e'khu ij vkwjsdy RDBMS lozj dh vko';drk gksrh gsa vu; DykbaV e'khuks a ij vuqiz;ksxks a dks fodflr djus ds fy, mijksdr es a ls fdlh Hkh Vwy dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa vkwjsdy MkVkcsl esa flfkr MkVk ds lkfk dk;z djus ds fy, Oracle * PLUS,d vr;ar l{ke,oa ljy Vwy gs] ftldk iz;ksx fdlh Hkh okrkoj.k ij fd;k tk ldrk gsa 2.4 DykbaV@loZj dei;wfvax dk ifjp; (An Overview of Client/Server Computing),d cgqr cm+s fllve esa fofhkuu izdkj ds dk;z djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa,d gh izkslslj lhkh dk;ks± dks,d lkfk dq'kyrkiwozd (Efficiently) iw.kz ugha dj ldrka vr% bl lel;k dks lqy>kus ds fy,,d ls vf/d izkslsljksa dks,d usvodz ds :i esa,d nwljs ds lkfk tksm+ fn;k tkrk gsa ;s lhkh izkslslj,d lkfk feydj dk;z djrs gsaa izr;sd izkslslj,d fof'k"v dk;z ds izfr lefizr (Dedicated) gksrk gsa bl izdkj fofhkuu izkslsljkas ds chp dk;ks± dks fohkktu dj nsus ls leiw.kz fllve dh dk;zdq'kyrk esa o`f¼ gksrh gsa viuk dk;z (Task) iw.kz djus ds fy, izkslslj,d nwljs ds chp lwpukvksa dk vknku&iznku Hkh djrs gsaa,slk izkslslj] tks dksbz lwpuk vfkok lsok izkir djus ds fy, fdlh vu; izkslslj ds ikl fuosnu Hkstrk gs] mls ^DykbaV (Client)' dgrs gsaa tks izkslslj DykbaV dh ekax ds vuqlkj mls lsok, (Services) iznku djrk gs] rks mls ^lozj (Server)' dgk tkrk gsa DykbUV rfkk lozj ls feydj cuh ;g lajpuk Client/Server Architecture dgykrh gsa,d ewyhkwr DykbaV@loZj lajpuk dks fueufyf[kr fp=k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % vkwjsdy RDBMS rfkk DykbaV@loZj dei;wfvax dk ifjp; Client Client Client Client Server Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- SQL D;k gs\ 2- Oracle Server ls vki D;k le>rs gsa\ lkeku; DykbaV@loZj lajpuk 23

24 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mijksdr fp=k ds }kjk ;g Li"V gs fd lajpuk esa,d lozj rfkk vusd DykbaV dei;wvj gksrs gsaa lkeku;r% fllve ds lhkh tfvy,oa egroiw.kz dk;z lozj }kjk fd, tkrs gsaa tsls& iqkbyksa esa lafpr MkVk dks i<+uk rfkk u;k MkVk iqkby esa fy[kuka ;wtj&uke rfkk iklomz dks tkapuka MkVkcsl ds fofhkuu DykbaV~l }kjk Hksth xbz ek x dks Lohdkj djuk rfkk muds vuq:i izfrfø;k (response) nsuka usvodz ds lhkh lalk/uksa dk O;oLFkkiu,oa fu;a=k.ka DykbaV dei;wvj lkeku;r% ljy dk;z djrk gs rfkk tfvy dk;ks± ds fy, ;g lozj ij fuhkzj gksrk gsa DykbaV }kjk fd, tkus okys dqn dk;z fueufyf[kr gsa % lozj ls laca/ LFkkfir djuk,oa MkVkcsl ij dk;z djuka fofhkuu izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa dh lgk;rk ls MkVkcsl vuqiz;ksx ds 'FRONT END' dk fuekz.k djuka Graphical User Interface (GUI) vfkok Command Line Interface (CLI) dks fø;kfuor djuka,d RDBMS dh lajpuk lnso 'Client/Server Architecture' ds vuq:i gh fufezr dh tkrh gsa Client/Server Architecture esa DykbaV rfkk lozj dh chp leidz LFkkfir djus ds fy, fueufyf[kr rroksa dh vko';drk gksrh gs% (a) Server (b) Client (c) Middleware (d) Relational Database (e) Program Interface (f) Structured Query Language (SQL) lozj rfkk DykbaV ds chp leidz LFkkfir djus dk dk;z Middleware ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa lkfk gh] ;g izksxzke buvjiqsl,oa SQL dh lgk;rk ls RDBMS dks,dlsl djrk gsa DykbaV@loZj lajpuk fueu nks izdkj dh gksrh gsa % (i) Two-Tier Architecture (ii) Three-Tier Architecture bu nksuks a lajpukvks a dks ;gk la{ksi es a le>k;k x;k gs % 24 (i) f}&lrjh; lajpuk (Two-Tier Architecture) bl lajpuk esa,d RDBMS lozj rfkk,d vfkok vf/d DykbaV gksrs gsaa MkVk dks MkVkcsl esa lafpr djus rfkk lafpr fd, x, MkVk dks lqjf{kr j[kus dk dk;z lozj }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa DykbaV dei;wvlz viuh izr;sd vko';drk ds fy, lozj ij fuhkzj gksrs gsaa bl lajpuk dks fueufyf[kr fp=k esa le>k;k x;k gs %

25 vkwjsdy RDBMS rfkk dei;wfvax dk ifjp; f}&lrjh; MkVkcsl lajpuk (ii) f=k&lrjh; lajpuk (Three-Tier Architecture) ;g lajpuk olrqr% f}&lrjh; lajpuk dk gh folrkfjr :i gsa MkVkcsl lozj dk Hkkj (Load) de djus ds fy, bl lajpuk es,d gh usvodz esa,d ls vf/d lozj tksm+ fn, tkrs gsaa ;gk MkVkcsl lozj] MkVk ds lap;,oa laj{k.k dk gh dk;z djrk gsa DykbaV dei;wvj dsoy MkVkcsl ls lacaf/r dk;ks± ds fy, gh MkVkcsl lozj ls leidz djrs gsaa usvodz vfkok vuqiz;ksx ls lacaf/r vu; dk;ks± ds fy, DykbaV dks,iyhds'ku lozj dh vksj Hkstk tkrk gsa DykbaV ls izkir izr;sd,iyhds'ku fjdoslv dks iw.kz djuk,iyhds'ku lozj dk dk;z gksrk gsa bl izdkj MkVkcsl lozj dk Hkkj de fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl lajpuk dks fueufyf[kr fp=k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % f=k&lrjh; MkVkcsl DykbaV@loZj lajpuk 25

26 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 2.5,d lajpuk esa MkVkcsl (Database in a Client/Server Architecture) DykbaV lozj rduhd ds dkj.k vuqiz;ksx fllve dh lajpuk esa eq[;r% nks ifjorzu gq, gsa % (i) gkmzos;j dh lajpuk esa ifjorzua (ii) fllve ds vuqiz;ksx ds fy, iz;qdr rdks± (Logics) esa ifjorzua 2.6 vkwjsdy rfkk DykbaV@loZj lax.kuk (Oracle & Client/Server Computing) DykbaV@loZj MkVkcsl ds fuekz.k esa vkwjsdy dkwikszjs'ku,d vxz.kh deiuh gsa vkwjsdy ds izr;sd mrikn (Products) dks fof'k"v :i ls DykbaV@loZj MkVkcsl fllve ds fmtkbu fø;kuo;u rfkk O;oLFkkiu dh vko';drk ds vuq:i gh cuk;k tkrk gssa DykbaV@loZj lajpuk ds rhuksa izeq[k Hkkxksa (Components) dk lefkzu (Support) djus ds fy, vkwjsdy }kjk fueufyf[kr izdkj ds mrikn (Products) cuk, x, gsa % (i) lhkh fo'ks"krkvksa ls ;qdr] mpp izn'kzu (Performance) okyk,d RDBMS lozja (ii) fofhkuu GUI (Graphical User Interface) okrkoj.kksa dk lefkzu djus okys vusd DykbaV mrikn (Products). (iii) usvodz izksvksdkwy dh,d folr`r J `[kyk dk lefkzu djus okyk MkVkcsl dusfdvfovh mrikn (Middle ware) vkwjsdy ds fofhkuu DykbaV@loZj mriknuksa dks fueufyf[kr fp=k esa le>k;k x;k gs % 26 fp=k % vkwjsdy DykbaV@loZj mrikn

27 vkwjsdy lajpuk ds izeq[k Hkkx fueufyf[kr gsa % (A) Oracle RDBMS Server (B) Networking products (C) Client/Server Development tools vkwjsdy RDBMS rfkk DykbaV@loZj dei;wfvax dk ifjp; bu lhkh?kvdksa (Components) dks ;gk le>k;k x;k gs % (A) Oracle RDBMS Server vkwjsdy lozj lhkh fo'ks"krkvksa ls ;qdr,d RDBMS gs] tks DykbaV@loZj lajpuk ds fy, iw.kzr% mi;qdr gksrk gsa vkwjsdy dh vkarfjd lajpuk ds fofhkuu xq.k (Features), gkslv dei;wvj ds lalk/uksa ds fy, mpp miyc/rk (High Availability), vf/ dre Fkzq&iqV (Throughput) rfkk lqj{kk iznku djrs gsaa mijksdr lhkh fo'ks"krkvks a ds vykok vkwjsdy es a dqn Hkk"kk vk/kfjr (language-based) fo'ks"krk, Hkh gksrh gs a] ftudh lgk;rk ls lozj&lkbm vuqiz;ksx (Applications) dk izn'kzu (Performance) lq/kjk tk ldrk gsa ;s fueufyf[kr gs a% (i) PL/SQL Language fdlh Hkh vkwjsdy lozj ds fy, PL/SQL izkslsflax batu,d izeq[k Hkkx gksrk gsa PL/SQL esa PL dk vfkz 'Procedural Language' rfkk SQL dk vfkz 'Structured Query Language' gsa PL/SQL vkwjsdy dh,d 4GL (Fourth Generation Language) gs] ftlds }kjk izkslhtjy Hkk"kk ds rroks a dh lajpuk dks SQL ds lkfk tksm+k x;k gsa PL/SQL dks fof'k"v :i ls DykbaV@loZj izfø;kvks a ds fy, gh fufezr fd;k x;k gsa PL/SQL dh lgk;rk ls fdlh vuqiz;ksx dh DykbaV lkbm ij vr;ur vyi izkslsflax dh vko';drk gksrh gsa blds dkj.k fdlh rdz dks fø;kfuor djus ds fy, vko';d usvodz VªSfiQd esa Hkh deh vkrh gsa vkwjsdy lozj ds lkfk gh SQL*Forms rfkk Oracle forms br;kfn ds }kjk Hkh PL/SQL dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa DykbaV@loZj okrkoj.k esa PL/SQL vr;ar mi;ksxh gksrh gs] D;ksafd DykbaV rfkk lozj ij iz;ksx dh tk jgh Hkk"kkvksa dks,d nwljs esa ifjofrzr djuk lahko gsa 'Submitting a PL/SQL Block' Client Application PL/SQL Block Begin : SQL 1 if... SQL 2 else if SQL 3 else SQL 4 end if SQL 5 end; Oracle Server PL/SQL Engine,d PL/SQL CykWd ds iz;ksx ls,d ckj esa vusd dfku fø;kfuor gks ldrs gsaa Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 3- DykbaV@loZj lajpuk ds nks çdkj ds uke crk,a 4- DykbaV@loZj lajpuk D;k gs\ 27

28 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 28 'Calling a stored PL/SQL Procedure' Client Application Procedure Call Execute Hire_emp (100, Rajesh) Stored Procedure calls Reduce Network Traffic fp=k % PL/SQL ds iz;ksx ls usvodz VªSfiQd esa deh Oracle Server PL/SQL Engine Stored Produre Hire-emp (ii) Stored Procedures vkwjsdy esa PL/SQL CykWd dks lafpr izkslhtj (stored procedures) iqad'ku rfkk MkVkcsl isdsv ds :i esa Objects dh rjg Hkh lafpr fd;k tk ldrk gsa lafpr izkslhtj dk iz;ksx djus ls DykbaV@loZj fllve dh {kerk esa vr;f/d o`f¼ gksrh gsa blds dqn dkj.k fueufyf[kr gsa % (a) lafpr izkslhtj dks lozj ij gh lafpr,oa fø;kfuor fd;k tkrk gsa vr% DykbaV vuqiz;ksx ls lafpr izkslhtj dks cqykus (calling) djus ds fy, dsoy,d dfku dh vko';drk gksrh gs] leiw.kz PL/SQL CykWd dh ughaa blls usvodz Vª SfiQd de gks tkrk gsa (b) lafpr izkslhtj dk,d ljy rfkk l{ke lqj{kk ra=k gksrk gsa bugsa dsoy izkf/dkj (Privilege) ds vk/kj ij gh fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa vr% vuf/ñr (Unauthorized) ;wtlz bugsa dkwy ugha dj ldrsa (iii) Database Triggers MkVkcsl fvªaxj Hkh lafpr izkslhtj dh gh rjg PL/SQL CykWd gksrs gsaa bu nksuksa esa vurj dsoy bruk gs fd fvªxj dks RDBMS kernel }kjk Lor% gh dkwy fd;k tkrk gsa dksbz Insert, Update vfkok Delete Operation gksus ij kernel Lo;a bu fvªxj dks dkwy djrk gsa lafpr izkslhtj dh gh rjg fvªaxj ds iz;ksx }kjk Hkh dksm dh ek=kk (Amount) rfkk bldh izkslsflax dks de fd;k tk ldrk gsa vkwjsdy esa dfku&lrj (Statement level) rfkk iafdr&lrj (Row level) nksuksa izdkj ds fvªaxj dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa tcfd] vu; fdlh MkVkcsl esa lkeku;r% dsoy Statement Level fvªaxj gh gksrs gsaa mnkgj.k % ;fn,d UPDATE dfku ds }kjk 100 iafdr;k izhkkfor gks jgh gsa] rks bl flfkfr esa kernel dsoy,d ckj statement-level fvªxj dks dkwy djrk gsa ijurq] 100 iafdr;ksa ds fy, izr;sd ckj,d&,d row level fvªxj dkwy fd;k tkrk gsa (iv) User-Defined Functions PL/SQL CykWd dk iz;ksx iz;ksdrk ifjhkkf"kr iqad'kuksa esa Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa blds vfrfjdr bu iqad'kuksa dks vkwjsdy ds SQL iqad'kuksa ds lewg esa Hkh lfeefyr fd;k tk ldrk gsa (B) Networking Products ;fn fdlh usvodz esa vkwjsdy ij vk/kfjr DykbaV@loZj fllve dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] rks usvodz ds fofhkuu uksm~l (Nodes) ds eè; lac¼rk (Connectivity) ds fø;kuo;u (Implementation) ds fy, vkwjsdy ds MkVkcsl usvofd±x lkwývos;j dh vko';drk gksrh gsa,d usvodz ds fofhkuu DykbaV vuqiz;ksxksa dks MkVkcsl lozj ds lkfk dusdv djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa vusd ussvofd±x mrikn gksrs gsaa buesa ls dqn fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) SQL*Net SQL*Net eq[;r%,d MkVkcsl eslsftax lkwývos;j gsa bldh lgk;rk ls lhkh izpfyr usvodz izksvksdkwyl ds }kjk MkVkcsl ij fo'oluh; in~/fr ls lans'kksa dk vknku iznku fd;k tk ldrk gsa lozj }kjk forfjr ysu&nsu (Distributed Transactions) nwjlfk (Remote) procedure calls br;kfn tsls dk;ks± esa vu; lozlz ds lkfk leidz (Communication) djus ds fy, Hkh SQL*Net dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa

29 (ii) Oracle Network Manager,d forfjr MkVkcsl usvodz VksiksykWth dk O;oLFkkiu vr;ar tfvy gksrk gsa bls ljy cukus ds fy, SQL*Net }kjk vkwjsdy usvodz esustj uked,d GUI vk/kfjr iz'kklfud (Administrive) buvjiqsl dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blds vfrfjdr vkwjsdy usvodz esustj dk iz;ksx DykbaV rfkk lozj ij flfkr SQL*Net?kVdksa dh iqkbyksa dk fuekz.k djus esa Hkh fd;k tkrk gsa (C) Client/Server Development Tools mijksdr lozj rfkk usvofd±x mriknksa ds vfrfjdr vkwjsdy esa GUI ij vk/kfjr vusd DykbaV lkbm Vwy Hkh gksrs gsaa buesa ls dqn eq[; VwYl fueufyf[kr gsa% (i) Designer/2000 ;g,d CASE (Computer Aided Software Engineering) Vwy gsa Designer/2000 ds }kjk fdlh vuqiz;ksx ds DykbaV&lkbM,oa lozj&lkbm nksuksa gh Hkkxksa ij dk;z fd;k tk ldrk gsa Designer/2000 vusd fo'ks"krkvksa okyk,d tfvy Vwy gsa ijurq bldh lgk;rk ls vuqiz;ksxkas dk fuekz.k djuk vr;ur gh ljy gks tkrk gsa (ii) Developer/2000 Developer/2000 Vwy esa Oracle Forms, Oracle Reports, Oracle Graphics br;kfn fofhkuu lqfo/kvksa dks laxzfgr fd;k tkrk gsa budh lgk;rk ls ge vius vuqiz;ksxksa dk fuekz.k dj ldrs gsa vfkok Forms rfkk Reports br;kfn rs;kj djus ds fy, bugsa designer/2000 ds lkfk Hkh iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa (D) Other Client/Server Tools mijksdr izeq[k VwYl ds vfrfjdr vkwjsdy dkwikszjs'ku }kjk uohure rduhdksa ij vk/kfjr dqn vu; VwYl Hkh izlrqr fd, x, gsaa ;s VwYl,d MkVkcsl fllve dh dk;zdq'kyrk] O;oLFkkiu] izn'kzu] {kerkvksa br;kfn dks c<+kus esa lgk;d gksrs gsaa buesa ls dqn VwYl fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) Wireless Client/Server nwjlfk (Remote) DykbaV@loZj dei;wfvax ds fy, vkwjsdy }kjk,d ubz rduhd izlrqr dh xbz gsa lsy;wyj (Cellular) MkVk usvodz ij dk;z djus okyh ;g rduhd eq[;r% Laptop rfkk Palmtop ;wtlz ds fy, vr;ur mi;ksxh gsa (ii) Internet/World Wide Web Interface World Wide Web rfkk Internet ij dk;z djus okys lozlz dks vkwjsdy MkVkcsl ds lkfk,dhñr (Integrate) djus ds fy, vkwjsdy dh Web Interface Kit dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blds }kjk osc iz;ksdrk vkwjsdy MkVk dks lafpr rfkk izkir dj ldrs gsaa lkjka'k (Summary) vkwjsdy orzeku le; esa fo'o dk lokzf/d izpfyr (Popular),oa 'kfdr'kkyh (Powerful) fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esusteasv fllve (RDBMS) gsa fdlh RDBMS ds fy, Dr. Codd us 12 fu;e (Rules) izlrqr fd;s] ftugsa dkwm ds fu;e (Codd's rules) dgk tkrk gsa Dr. Codd }kjk izlrqr bl ekwmy esa laxzfgr MkVk dk izca/u djus ds fy, IBM us,d ubz Hkk"kk fodflr dha bls 'Structured English QUEry Language (SEQUEL) uke fn;k x;ka ;g Hkk"kk ckn esa 'Structured Query Language' (SQL) ds uke ls vf/d izfl¼ gqbza 1979 esa fjys'kuy lkwývos;j uked,d company }kjk SQL ds fø;kuo;u ds fy, bldk izfke O;kolkf;d laldj.k izlrqr fd;ka ckn esa fjys'kuy lkwývos;j dk uke cnydj vkwjsdy dkwikszjs'ku (Oracle Corporation) j[kk x;ka vkwjsdy dkwikszjs'ku (Oracle Corporation) dk,d mrikn (Product) 'ORACLE' vkt fo'o dk lokzf/d izpfyr] lozj vk/kfjr] cgq&iz;ksdrk (multiuser) RDBMS gsa lkfk gh] ;g fo'o dk,slk,dek=k RDBMS gs] tks Codd ds 12 esa ls 11 fu;eksa dks iw.kz djrk gsa vu; dksbz Hkh RDBMS, 10 ls vf/d fu;eksa dks iw.kz dj ikus esa l{ke ugha gsa le; ds lkfk&lkfk vkwjsdy RDBMS ds fofhkuu laldj.k izlrqr fd, x, gsaa oracle 11g bldk uohure laldj.k gsa ijurq orzeku le; esa 'Oracle 9i' uked laldj.k gh lokzfèkd izpfyr gsa vkwjsdy MkVkcsl eas lafpr MkVk ds lkfk dk;z djus ds fy, vkwjsdy dkikszjs'ku }kjk fofhkuu mrikn (Products) izlrqr fd, x, gsaa ;wtj rfkk MkVkcsl ds chp buvjiqsl (Interface) iznku vkwjsdy RDBMS rfkk DykbaV@loZj dei;wfvax dk ifjp; 29

30 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 30 djus okys bu mriknksa dks vkwjsdy buvjiqsl midj.k dgk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy MkVkcsl esa flfkr MkVk ds lkfk dk;z djus ds fy, Oracle * PLUS,d vr;ar l{ke,oa ljy Vwy gs] ftldk iz;ksx fdlh Hkh okrkoj.k ij fd;k tk ldrk gsa,d cgqr cm+s fllve esa fofhkuu izdkj ds dk;z djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa,d gh izkslslj lhkh dk;ks± dks,d lkfk dq'kyrkiwozd (Efficiently) iw.kz ugha dj ldrka vr% bl lel;k dks lqy>kus ds fy,,d ls vf/d izkslsljksa dks,d usvodz ds :i esa,d nwljs ds lkfk tksm+ fn;k tkrk gsa ;s lhkh izkslslj,d lkfk feydj dk;z djrs gsaa,slk izkslslj] tks dksbz lwpuk vfkok lsok izkir djus ds fy, fdlh vu; izkslslj ds ikl fuosnu Hkstrk gs] mls ^DykbaV (Client)' dgrs gsaa tks izkslslj DykbaV dh ekax ds vuqlkj mls lsok, (Services) iznku djrk gs] rks mls ^lozj (Server)' dgk tkrk gsa DykbUV rfkk lozj ls feydj cuh ;g lajpuk Client/Server Architecture dgykrh gsa,d RDBMS dh lajpuk lnso 'Client/Server Architecture' ds vuq:i gh fufezr dh tkrh gsa vkwjsdy ds izr;sd mrikn (Products) dks fof'k"v :i ls DykbaV@loZj MkVkcsl fllve ds fmtkbu fø;kuo;u rfkk O;oLFkkiu dh vko';drk ds vuq:i gh cuk;k tkrk gssa vkwjsdy lozj lhkh fo'ks"krkvksa ls ;qdr,d RDBMS gs] tks DykbaV@loZj lajpuk ds fy, iw.kzr% mi;qdr gksrk gsa fdlh Hkh vkwjsdy lozj ds fy, PL/SQL izkslsflax batu,d izeq[k Hkkx gksrk gsa PL/SQL es a PL dk vfkz 'Procedural Language' rfkk SQL dk vfkz 'Structured Query Language' gsa ;fn fdlh usvodz es a vkwjsdy ij vk/kfjr DykbaV@loZj fllve dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] rks usvodz ds fofhkuu uksm~l (Nodes) ds eè; lac¼rk (Connectivity) ds fø;kuo;u (Implementation) ds fy, vkwjsdy ds MkVkcsl usvofd±x lkwývos;j dh vko';drk gksrh gsa Lo&Áxfr tk p ds Á'uksa ds mÿkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. bldk iwjk uke Structured Query Language gsa SQL esa Tables, Records, Permissions rfkk Queries ls lacaf/r fofhkuu vkns'k (Commands) gksrs gsaa tsls& CREATE, ALTER, DROP, SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, GRANT,oa REVOKE br;kfna 2. ;g vkwjsdy RDBMS dk,d Hkkx gs] tks,d MkVkcsl lozj ij dk;z djrk gsa ;g lozj] fofhkuu DykbaV e'khu ls fuosnu izkir djds] mugsa vkwjsdy RDBMS ij Hkstrk gs rfkk vkwjsdy RDBMS }kjk izkir ifj.kkeksa dks iqu% DykbaV e'khuksa ij Hkstk tkrk gsa 3. DykbaV@loZj lajpuk fueu nks izdkj dh gksrh gsa % (i) Two-Tier Architecture (ii) Three-Tier Architecture 4.,slk izkslslj] tks dksbz lwpuk vfkok lsok izkir djus ds fy, fdlh vu; izkslslj ds ikl fuosnu Hkstrk gs] mls ^DykbaV (Client)' dgrs gsaa tks izkslslj DykbaV dh ekax ds vuqlkj mls lsok, (Services) iznku djrk gs] rks mls ^lozj (Server)' dgk tkrk gsa DykbUV rfkk lozj ls feydj cuh ;g lajpuk Client/Server Architecture dgykrh gsa vh;kl (Exercise) 1. vkwjsdy RDBMS dk laf{kir ifjp; nhft,a 2. Oracle 9i ds izeq[k Features dks le>kb;sa 3. Oracle ds fofhkuu mriknksa dh ppkz dhft,a 4. Oracle ds Architecture dks le>kb;sa 5. Client/Server Computing dks le>kb;sa 6. Client/Server Architecture dh ppkz dhft,a 7. Client/Server Computing esa Oracle fdl izdkj lgk;d gksrk gs\ 8. Oracle ds fofhkuu Client/Server Products dk o.kzu dhft,a

31 3 vkwjsdy lajpuk dk voyksdu (Overview Of Oracle Architecture) vkwjsdy lajpuk dk voyksdu bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % vkwjsdy dh lajpuk vkwjsdy iqkbysa fllve rfkk ;wtj izfø;k, vkwjsdy eseksjh fllve MkVkcsl vkwctsdv MkVk dh lqj{kk 3.1 vkwjsdy lajpuk dk voyksdu (Overview of Oracle Architecture) bl Hkkx esa vkwjsdy lajpuk dk lkeku; fo'ys"k.k fd;k x;k gsa ;g fo'ys"k.k mu lhkh Platforms ij ykxw gksrk gs] ftu ij vkwjsdy dks fø;kfuor djuk lehko gsa fofhkuu platforms ds vuqlkj bl lajpuk esa dqn ifjorzu fd, tk ldrs gsa] ijurq] fiqj Hkh blds ewyhkwr (Fundamental) rro leku jgrs gsaa HkkSfrd :i ls vkwjsdy MkVkcsl olrqr% vusd iqkbyksa dk laxzg gsa MkVkcsl dk dk;z bl ckr ls izhkkfor ugha gksrk fd bu iqkbyksa dks fmld ij dgk j[kk x;k gsa ;s iqkbysa dqn Binary files gksrh gsa] ftugsa dsoy vkwjsdy duszy lkwývos;j dh lgk;rk ls gh ns[kk tk ldrk gsa bu MkVkcsl iqkbyksa esa lafpr MkVk ij dk;z djus ds fy, Structured Query Language (SQL) ds }kjk fdlh vkwjsdy Vwy (tsls& SQL*PLUS) dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 31

32 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy rkfdzd :i ls (Logically) MkVkcsl dks fofhkuu vkwjsdy ;wtj vdkmav~l (User accounts) ds }kjk fohkkftr fd;k tkrk gsa izr;sd ;wtj ds fy,,d fof'k"v ;wtj&uke (user-name) rfkk iklomz (Password) gksrk gsa mfpr ;wtj&use rfkk iklomz ds }kjk gh MkVkcsl dks,dlsl fd;k tk ldrk gsa nks fhkuu ;wtj Accounts esa j[ks nks vyx&vyx VscYl dk uke leku gks ldrk gsa ; fi] budk uke,d gh gksrk gs] ijurq] ;s nks fhkuu VscYl gksrs gsaa vkwjsdy dh ewyhkwr lajpuk dks fueufyf[kr fp=k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % 32 vkwjsdy lajpuk vkwjsdy lajpuk ds eq[; Hkkx fueufyf[kr gsa % (A) Oracle Files (B) System and User Processes (C) Oracle Memory (D) System Database Objects mijksdr lhkh Hkkxksa dks ;gk folrkj ls le>k;k x;k gs % (A) vkwjsdy iqkbysa (Oracle Files) lhkh izdkj ds MkVk, lwpukvksa br;kfn dks j[kus ds fy, vkwjsdy fllve fofhkuu izdkj dh iqkbyksa dk iz;ksx djrk gsa bu iqkbyksa dks Oracle files dgrs gsaa bugsa e'khu (Computer) dh gkmz&fmld Mªkbo ij j[kk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy iqkbysa fofhkuu izdkj dh gks ldrh gsaa ;s izdkj (Types) fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) MkVkcsl iqkbysa (Database Files) (ii) fu;a=k.k iqkbysa (Control Files) (iii) jh&mw ykwx (Redo Logs) (a) vkwuykb jh&mw ykwx (Online Redo Logs) (b) vkwiqykbu jh&mw ykwx (Offline Redo Logs)

33 (iv) vu; lgk;d iqkbysa (Other Supporting Files) bu lhkh iqkbyksa dks ;gk folrkj ls le>k;k x;k gs % (i) MkVkcsl iqkbysa (Database Files) vkwjsdy dh os iqkbysa] ftuesa oklrfod (Actual) MkVk j[kk tkrk gs] mugsa MkVkcsl iqkbysa dgrs gsaa ;s iqkbysa vkdkj esa lcls cm+h gksrh gsaa budk vkdkj dqn esxkckbv (MB) ls ysdj vusd xhxkckbv (GB) rd gks ldrk gsa pw fd] bu MkVkcsl iqkbyksa dk vkdkj cgqr cm+k gksrk gs] vr% vkwjsdy ds lhkh VscYl] vu; Objects,oa lhkh ;wtj vdkmuv~l dks,d gh MkVkcsl iqkby esa Hkh j[kk tk ldrk gsa ysfdu],slk djuk,d vkn'kz fof/ ugha gsa,slk djus ij vyx&vyx ;wtlz ds fy, LVksjst ds,sdlsl dks fu;af=kr djuk] MkVkcsl dks fhkuu&fhkuu Disk Drives ij j[kuk vfkok blds fdlh Hkkx dks iqu% izkir (Recover) djuk br;kfn dk;ks± dks MkVkcsl lajpuk esa ljyrk ls ugha fd;k tk ldrka vkwjsdy esa de ls de,d MkVkcsl iqkby dk gksuk vfuok;z gsa ijurq VscYl rfkk vu; vkwctsdv~l esa MkVk dks iz;ksx rfkk,sdlsl djus ds fy, lkeku;r% vusd iqkbyksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (ii) fu;a=k.k iqkbysa (Control Files) vkwjsdy es a MkVkcsl ls lecfu/r fofhkuu lwpukvks a ds fu;a=k.k (Control) ds fy, dqn iqkbyks a dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu iqkbyks a dks fu;a=k.k iqkby dgrs gs aa izr;sd MkVkcsl es a de ls de,d fu;a=k.k iqkby dk gksuk vfuok;z gksrk gsa ysfdu data-loss ls cpus ds fy, lkeku;r%,d vfèkd iqkbyks a dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa fu;a=k.k iqkby esa MkVkcsl dk uke] blds fuekz.k (Creation) dh frffk,oa le;] MkVkcsl rfkk fj&mw ykwx dh flfkfr (Location) br;kfn lwpuk, vafdr (Record) dh tkrh gsaa MkVkcsl esa tc Hkh dksbz fj&mw ykwx iqkby vfkok,d u;k MkVkcsl tksm+k tkrk gs] rks buls lacaf/r lwpuk, fu;a=k.k iqkbyksa esa vafdr gks tkrh gsaa (iii)jh&mw ykwx (Redo Logs) vkwjsdy esa System Objects vfkok User Objects ij fd, tkus okys lhkh ifjorzuksa dks dqn fo'ks"k iqkbyksa esa vafdr (Record) fd;k tkrk gsa bugsa Redo Logs dgrs gsaa izr;sd MkVkcsl esa de ls de nks Redo Logs dk gksuk vfuok;z gsa fdlh Hkh izdkj dh foiqyrk (Failure) dh flfkfr mriuu gksusa ij 'Commit' fd, tk pqds fdlh Hkh VªkUtsD'ku dks x ok,s fcuk MkVkcsl dks iqu% vuq:i (Consistent) flfkfr esa ykus ds fy, Redo Log files esa vafdr ifjorzuksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa vkwjsdy dh vu; files dh gh rjg Redo Log files dk vkdkj Hkh fuf'pr (Fixed) gksrk gs] ftls ifjofrzr ugha fd;k tkrka Redo Log Files dks nks Jsf.k;ksa esa fohkkftr fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % (a) vkwuykbu jh&mw ykwx (Online Redo Logs) Online Redo Logs,slh nks vfkok vf/d Redo Log files gksrh gsa] tks vkwjsdy ds dk;zjr~ jgus ij lnso mi;ksx esa jgrh gs aa bldk vfkz ;g gs fd tc rd vkwjsdy fllve 'ON' gs] rc rd yxkrkj bu files dk iz;ksx tkjh jgrk gsa MkVkcsl ij gksus okyk izr;sd ifjorzu Online Redo Files ij vafdr fd;k tkrk gsa tc,d Online Redo Log file ifjiw.kz (Full) gks tkrh gs] rks ifjorzu nwljh Online Redo Log file ij vafdr fd, tkrs gsaa nwljh file ifjiw.kz gks tkus ij MkVk iqu% izfke file ij fy[kk tkrk gsa bl izdkj ;g pø pyrk jgrk gsa (b) vkwiqykbu jh&mw ykwx (Offline Redo Logs) tc dksbz Online Redo Log file ifjiw.kz gks tkrh gs] rks bu files dks nqckjk iz;ksx djus gsrq buesa vafdr MkVk dks dqn fo'ks"k files esa Copy dj fy;k tkrk gsa bugsa Offline Redo Log vfkok Archived Redo log files dgrs gsaa vkwjsdy lajpuk dk voyksdu 33

34 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 34 Offline Redo Log files dk iz;ksx osdfyid gksrk gsa vkwjsdy budk fuekz.k dsoy rhkh djrk gs] tc MkVkcsl 'ARCHIVELOG' uked fof/ (Mode) ij py jgk gksa bl Mode esa 'ARCH' uke Background izkslsl }kjk Online Redo Logs ds MkVk dks Offline Redo Logs ij Copy fd;k tkrk gsa Copy dk ;g dk;z iw.kz gksus rd vkwjsdy vu; Online Redo Log file dk iz;ksx djrk gsa (iv) vu; lgk;d iqkbysa (Other Supporting Files) tc,d vkwjsdy Instance izkjehk fd;k tkrk gs] rks,d Instance Parameter file ds }kjk MkVkcsl dk vkdkj rfkk fof/;k (Modes) fu/kzfjr dh tkrh gsaa bl iqkby dk uke 'INIT.ORA' gksrk gsa ;g,d lkeku; Text file gsa blds isjkehvlz dh lsfvaxl dks ifjofrzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl isjkehvj iqkby dh fo"k; lwph (Contents) ds fuekz.k,oa blesa ifjorzu dk nkf;ro MkVkcsl iz'kkld (Administrator) dk gksrk gsa dqn vkwjsdy Platforms ij 'SGAPAD' uked,d iqkby dk fuekz.k Hkh fd;k tkrk gsa bl iqkby esa vkwjsdy SGA dk izkjfehkd eseksjh,mªsl gksrk gsa (B) fllve rfkk ;wtj izfø;k, (System and User Process) 'Process' 'kcn dk vfkz gs izfø;k] fof/ vfkok dk;za vkwjsdy fllve es a MkVkcsl dk iz;ksx djus ds fy, vusd izkslsl (Processes) dh vko';drk gksrh gsa bu izkslsl dks nks Jsf.k;ks a es a fohkkftr fd;k tk ldrk gs % (i) fllve izkslsl (System Process) (ii) ;wtj izkslsl (User Process) bu nksuksa Jsf.k;ksa esa fofhkuu Processes gksrh gsa] ftudk iz;ksx ;wtj rfkk vkwjsdy fllve dh vko';drk ds vuqlkj fd;k tkrk gsa (i) fllve izkslsl (System Process) ;s,slh izfø;k, gsa] tks ;wtj ds dk;ks± dks iw.kz djus rfkk funsz'kksa dk ikyu djus ds fy, dqn functions iznku (Provide) djrh gsa buesa ls dqn processes dk iz;ksx vfuok;z gksrk gsa dqn processes osdfyid gasa vr% fllve izkslslsl dks nks Jsf.k;ksa esa j[kk x;k gs % (a) Mandatory (vfuok;z) System processes (b) Optional (osdfyid) System processes bu nksuksa Jsf.k;ksa dh processes dks ;gk folrkj ls le>k;k x;k gs % (a) vfuok;z fllve izfø;k, (Mandatory System Processes vkwjsdy fllve esa MkVkcsl dk iz;ksx djus ds fy, dqn System Processes dk lnso miyc/ rfkk fø;k'khy (Active) gksuk vko';d gksrk gsa vfkkzr~ ;s izfø;k, fllve ds fy, vfuok;z gsaa vr% bugsa Mandatory System Processes dgk tkrk gsa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % I. DBWR II. LGWR III. SMON IV. PMON I. DBWR (Database Writer) DBWR (Database writer), vkwjsdy esa Backround (i`"bhkwfe) ij dk;z djusokyh,d izkslsl gsa ;g izkslsl SGA (System Global Area) esa ifjorzu fd, x, MkVkcsl dks MkVkcsl iqkby ij fy[kus dk dk;z djrh gsa ;g izkslsl dsoy mu Blocks dks gh i<+rh gs] ftuesa dksbz ifjorzu (tsls& u;k fjdkmz tksm+uk vfkok fevkuk br;kfn fd;k x;k gsa,sls ifjofrzr Blocks dks Dirty Blocks Hkh dgk tkrk gsa

35 II. LGWR (Log Writer) Log writer,d vu; Mandatory System Process gsa ;g izkslsl SGA (System Global Area) ds Redo Buffer dh izfof"v;ksa (Entries) dks Online Redo Log Files ij fy[kus dk dk;z djrh gsa mnkgj.k % tc dksbz VªkUtsD'ku 'COMMIT' fd;k tkrk gs] rks blds iw.kz gksus dk lans'k (Message) ;wtj dks nsus ls iwoz Redo Log Buffer dh izfof"v;ksa dks Online Redo Log files ij fy[kk tkuk vfuok;z gksrk gs] rkfd 'COMMIT' }kjk fd, tk jgs ifjorzu fmld ij lqjf{kr gks tk,aa ;g dk;z Log writer }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa III. SMON (System Monitor) SMON izkslsl leiw.kz vkwjsdy fllve ds voyksdu (Monitoring) dk dk;z djrh gsa tc vkwjsdy fllve izkjehk (Start) gksrk gs] rks iqu% izkfir (Recovery) dk dk;z SMON izkslsl }kjk Lor% (Automatically) fd;k tkrk gsa tc fllve fuf"ø; (Idle) gs] vfkkzr~ tc bl ij dksbz dk;z ugha fd;k tk jgk gs] rc SMON izkslsl MkVkcsl iqkbyksa ds fjdr (free) LFkkuksa dks O;ofLFkr djrh gs] rkfd u, MkVkcsl vkwctsdv~l dk fuekz.k djuk vfkok orzeku objects dk folrkj djuk vkwjsdy fllve ds fy, ljy gks ldsa blh izdkj User processes }kjk fufezr ftu vlfkk;h (Temporary) Hkkxksa dk mi;ksx vkxs u fd;k tkuk gks] SMON izkslsl mugsa eqdr (Release) dj nsrh gsa fllve esa dksbz vojks/ (Dead lock) mriuu gksus ij bl flfkfr dks Kkr djus rfkk bldh lwpuk izkslsl dks nsus dk dk;z Hkh vkwjsdy dh SMON izkslsl }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa IV. PMON (Process Monitor) Process Monitor (PMON) vkwjsdy fllve esa lhkh user processes ds voyksdu (Monitoring) dk dk;z djrh gsa ;fn fdlh ;wtj izkslsl esa dksbz lel;k mriuu gksrh gs] rks PMON ysunsu izfø;k (Transaction) ds izkjehk ls ml ;wtj izkslsl }kjk fd, x, lhkh dk;ks± dks Lor% fujlr dj nsrh gsa lkfk gh] ml izkslsl }kjk iz;qdr lhkh 'Locks' rfkk fllve ds vu; lalk/u (Resources) Hkh eqdr dj fn, tkrs gsaa bu dk;ks± ds vfrfjdr PMON izkslsl nks vu; Processes, fmliwpj (dispatcher) rfkk 'ks;mz lozj izkslsl (shared server process) dk Hkh è;ku j[krh gsa ;s nksuksa processes, cgq&lw=kh; (Multi-Threaded) lozj lsv&vi dk Hkkx gsaa (b) osdfyid fllve izkslsl (Optional System Processes) mijksdr pkj vfuok;z system processes ds vykok dqn vu; osdfyid izkslsl (Processes) Hkh gksrh gsa] ftudk iz;ksx vko';drk ds vuqlkj fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % I. ARCH II. CKPT III. RECO IV. LCK V. SQL*Net Listener I. ARCH (Archiver) ;fn MkVkcsl 'ARCHIVELOG' fof/ (Mode) ij pyk;k tk jgk gks] rks Online redo Log files dh,d izfr (copy) fufezr djds fmld es a j[kus ds fy, 'ARCH' uked izkslsl dks izkjehk (Start) fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj MkVkcsl iqkbyks a ij fd, x, lhkh ifjorzuks a dks ARCH dh lgk;rk ls Online rfkk Offline, nksuks a gh Redo Log files ij vafdr (Record) fd;k tk ldrk gsa vkwjsdy lajpuk dk voyksdu 35

36 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 36 ;fn MkVkcsl ARCHIVERLOG fof/ (Mode) ij dk;z u dj jgk gks] rks 'ARCH' izkslsl vuqi;ksxh gksrh gsa II. CKPT (Checkpoint Process),d Online Redo Log file tc iw.kz gks tkrh gs] rks,d Check-Point izkslsl mriuu gksrh gsa bl iqkby ij vafdr fd, x, ifjorzuksa dks MkVkcsl iqkbyksa ij fy[kuk vko';d gksrk gs rkfd fllve esa foiqyrk (failure) vfkok dksbz vu; lel;k (Problem) mriuu gksus ij bu ifjorzuksa dks iqu% izkir fd;k tk ldsa ;g dk;z iw.kz gks tkus ij bu 'Redo Log files dks iqu% iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa Redo Log files ds MkVk dks fmld ij fy[kus ds fy, DBWR izkslsl dks funsz'k nsus dk dk;z 'CKPT' }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa pw fd 'CKPT',d osdfyid izkslsl gs] vr% bldh vuqiflfkfr esa ;g dk;z 'LGWR' }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa III.RECO (Recover) ;fn fdlh ysu&nsu (Transaction) esa nks vfkok vf/d MkVkcsl dks ifjofrzr fd;k tk jgk gs] rks,sls ysu&nsu dks forfjr ysu&nsu (Distributed Transaction) dgk tkrk gsa bl izdkj ds VªkUtsD'ku esa dksbz foiqyrk (Failure) gksus ij,d vfkok vf/d MkVkcsl ds ifjorzuksa dks 'COM- MIT' ;k 'ROLLBACK' djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa ;g dk;z 'RECO' }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa IV. LCK (Lock) vkwjsdy esa ;fn MkVkcsl iqkbyksa ds,d lewg ij,d ls vf/ d Instances }kjk dk;z fd;k tk jgk gks] rks bls Parallel Server setup dgk tkrk gsa bu lhkh Instances ds chp Locks dks ledkfyd (Synchronize) djus ds fy, 'LCK' izkslsl dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % ;fn,d Instance ij dk;z dj jgs fdlh ;wtj us,d iafdr (Row) dks ykwd fd;k gs] rks og iafdr] vu; lhkh Instances ij Hkh Lor% gh ykwd gks tkrh gsa vfkkzr~ vu; Instances ij dk;zjr~ ;wtlz bl le; ml iafdr (Row) eas dksbz ifjorzu ugha dj ldrsa vkwjsdy esa vf/dre 10 LCK Processes dks izkjehk fd;k tk ldrk gsa ysfdu] lkeku;r%,d izkslsl gh i;kzir gksrh gsaa V. SQL*Net Listener ;g,d vu; fllve izkslsl gsa bldk iz;ksx eq[;r% usvodlz vfkok buvjusv ij dk;zjr~ fofhkuu DykbaV e'khuksa ls izkir fuosnuksa (Requests) dks mfpr vkwjsdy Instance ij Hkstus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa MkVkcsl lozj rfkk DykbaV e'khuksa ls izkir fuosnuksa (Requests) rfkk vuqfø;kvksa (Responses) dks mfpr ekxz (Routs) ij izsf"kr djus ds fy, SQL*Net Listener Process, dqn usvodz lkwývos;lz dh lgk;rk ysrh gsa (tsls& TCP/ IP Network Protocol) mnkgj.k % ;fn,d DykbaV e'khu ij Windows rfkk lozj ij UNIX vkwijsfvax fllve dk iz;ksx fd;k tk jgk gks] rks buds chp laokn (Communication) ds fy, SQL*Net Listener izkslsl dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa SQL*Net Listener izkslsl,d e'khu ij dk;z dj jgs lhkh instances dh Requests dks izkslsl dj ldrh gsa (ii) ;wtj izfø;k, (User Processer) vkwjsdy esa fllve izkslslsl ds vfrjfdr dqn vu; izfø;k, Hkh gksrh gsaa budk iz;ksx eq[;r% ;wtj ds fllve rfkk RDBMS fllve ds chp leidz (Connection) LFkkfir djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa bugsa ;wtj izkslslsl vfkok DykbaV izkslsl dgrs gsaa

37 User processes ds nks rdzlaxr (Logical) Hkkx gksrs gsa % (a) Oracle Server Code ;g Hkkx Structured Query Language (SQL) ds dfkuksa (Statements) dks vuqokfnr,oa fø;kfuor djrk gsa lkfk gh] ;g eseksjh {ks=kksa (Areas) rfkk MkVkcsl iqkbyksa dks i<+us dk dk;z Hkh djrk gsa (b) Tool-Specific Code vkwjsdy esa MkVkcsl ds lkfk dk;z djus ds fy, vusd lk/ uksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bugsa fø;kfuor (Execute) djus ds fy, vko';d dksm dks Tool Specific Code dgrs gsaa vkwjsdy dk Vwy vk/kfjr dksm izr;sd Vwy ds vuqlkj vyx&vyx gks ldrk gsa ysfdu] lozj dksm fdlh fof'k"v Vwy ij vk/kfjr ugha gksrka vr% SQL dfkuksa dks fø;kfuor djus okys izr;sd Vwy ds fy,,d gh lozj dksm dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa lozj dksm dks vkwjsdy duszy dksm Hkh dgrs gsaa vkwjsdy dh User processes dks fueufyf[kr Jsf.k;ksa esa j[kk tk ldrk gs % (1) Single Task bl la:i.k (configuration) esa Vwy&vk/kfjr dksm rfkk lozj dksm nksuksa dks,d gh izkslsl esa j[kk tkrk gsa ;gk MkVkcsl ds izr;sd dusd'ku ds ikl e'khu ij py jgk,d izkslsl gksrk gsa Single Task Configuration dks eq[;r%,sls Platforms ij iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] tks DykbaV@loZj okrkor.k ij dk;z ugha djrsa (2) Dedicated Server Processes bls Two-Task vfkok Shadow Process Hkh dgk tkrk gsa bl la:i.k esa User Process ds nksuksa Hkkxksa (Server Code rfkk Vwy&vk/kfjr dksm) dks e'khu ij nks vyx&vyx Processes esa j[kk tkrk gsa ;s nksuksa izkslsl vkil esa leidz dj ldrs gsaa blds fy, Interprocess Communication uked fof/ dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Dedicated server process esa MkVkcsl ds iz zr;sd dusd'ku ds ikl e'khu py jgs nks izkslsl gksrs gsaa,d izkslsl ij py jgs vkwjsdy duszy lkwývos;j dks 'Shadow Process' Hkh dgk tkrk gsa Dedicated Server Processes dk iz;ksx eq[;r% DykbaV lozj i¼fr es a fd;k tkrk gsa bl i¼fr es a lozj dksm] lozj e'khu ij rfkk Vwy&vk/kfjr dksm DykbaV e'khu ij flfkr gksrk gsa ;s nksuks a izkslsl,d usvodz ds }kjk vkil es a leidz dj ldrs gs aa (3) Multithreaded Server (MTS) MTS ds }kjk,d gh vkwjsdy lozj vusd ;wtj izkslsl ds fy, dk;z dj ldrk gsa blls py jgs izkslsl dh la[;k?kvrh gsa blds ifj.kkelo:i] e'khu ds fy, vko';d eseksjh dh cpr gksrh gs rfkk fllve dh dk;zdq'kyrk (Efficiency) Hkh c<+rh gsa MTS esa ;fn dksbz usvofd±x u Hkh gks] rc Hkh blesa SQL*Net Listener dh vko';drk gksrh gsa (4) Dispatchers Dispatchers,sls izkslsl gs a] tks SQL*Listener ds DykbaV izkslsl ls fuosnu (Request) ysrs gs a rfkk ml fjdoslv dks Shared Server Processes ij Hkstrs gs aa Oracle Instance ij fjdoslv Hkstus ds fy, iz;ksx fd, tk jgs izr;sd usvodz izksvkwdkwy ds fy, de ls de,d fmlispj dks lsv (Set) djuk vfuok;z gksrk gsa budh la[;k c<+us ij Hkh blls fllve ij dksbz Hkkj (Load) ugha c<+rk] D;ksafd ;s dsoy ekxz (Route) iznku djrs gsaa oklrfor dk;z rks Shared Servers }kjk gh fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy lajpuk dk voyksdu 37

38 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy (5) Shared Servers Shared Servers Hkh Dedicated Servers dh gh rjg dk;z djrs gs a rfkk bues a Hkh vkwjsdy lozj dksm gksrk gsa ;s Servers vusd User Processes ds fuosnuks a (Requests) dks viuh lsok, (Services) iznku dj ldrs gs aa fllve dh fø;kvksa (Activities) ds vk/kj ij Shared Server Processes dh la[;k Lor% (Automatically) c<+rh vfkok?kvrh jgrh gsa (C) vkwjsdy eseksjh (Oracle Memory) bl Hkkx esa ge ns[ksaxs fd vkwjsdy fdlh dei;wvj (Computer) dh eseksjh dk iz;ksx fdl izdkj djrk gsa lkeku;r% vkwjsdy fllve ds fy, ftruh vf/d eseksjh miyc/ gks] fllve mruh gh vfèkd xfr ls dk;z dj ldrk gsa vkwjsdy eseksjh ds dqn eq[; {ks=k (Areas) fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) System Global Area (SGA) (ii) Process Global Area (PGA) (iii) Oracle Programs bu lhkh dks vkxs folrkkj esa le>k;k x;k gs % (i) System Global Area (SGA) 'System Global Area (SGA)' dks 'Shared Global Area' Hkh dgk tkrk gsa eseksjh dk ;g {ks=k fdlh Oracle Instance es a mu Control Structures rfkk MkVk ds fy, gksrk gs] ftugsa ml Instance ij py jgs lhkh User Processes rfkk Background Processes }kjk 'ks;j fd;k tk ldrk gsa izr;sd Oracle Instance ds fy, Lo;a dk,d vyx SGA gksrk gsa olrqr% SGA rfkk Background processes ds }kjk gh,d Oracle Instance ifjhkkf"kr (Define) fd;k tkrk gsa,d bulvul izkjehk (Start) gksus ij SGA Memory Area vkoafvr (Allocate) fd;k tkrk gs S rfkk Instance dks can (shutdown) djus ij ;g Area Flush djds vukoafvr (Unallocate) dj fn;k tkrk gsa Instance Shared Pool Library Cache Data Dictionary Cache Database Buffer Cache Java Pool Redo Lob Buffer Large Pool PMON SMON DBWR LGWR CKPT Others System Global Area 38 SGA dks eq[;r% rhu Hkkxksa esa fohkkftr fd;k x;k gsa ;s Hkkx fueufyf[kr gsa % (a) Database Buffer Cache (b) Shared Pool Area (c) Redo Cache buesa ls izr;sd Hkkx dk vkdkj (Size) vkwjsdy dh 'INIT.ORA' uked iqkby ds isjkehvlz }kjk fu;af=kr fd;k tkrk gsa bu lhkh Hkkxksa dks vkxs le>k;k x;k gs %

39 (a) Database Buffer Cache SGA ds bl Hkkx es a vkwjsdy ds mu ckwdl dks j[kk tkrk gs] ftugs a MkVkcsl iqkbyks a ls i<+k x;k gsa tc dksbz,d izkslsl eseksjh ds Vscy ds fy, ckwdl dks i<+rk gs] rks ml bulvul ds lhkh izkslsl ml CykWd dks,sdlsl dj ldrs gs aa ;fn fdlh izkslsl dks dksbz MkVk izkslsl djus dh vko';drk gksrh gs] rks vkwjsdy fllve ml CykWd dks ds'k (Cache) esa ns[krk gsa ;nf vkwjsdy CykWd ciqj esa ugha gs] rks mls MkVkcsl iqkby ls ciqj ds'k esa jhm (Read) djuk vfuok;z gksrk gsa MkVkcsl iqby ls MkVk CykWd i<+us ds fy, ciqj ds'k (cache) esa,d fjdr (Free) CykWd miyc/ gksuk vko';d gsa eseksjh esa MkVkcsl ciqj ds'k esa vkwjsdy CykWd dks bl izdkj vk;ksftr (Arrange) fd;k tkrk gs] fd iz;ksx fd, x, uohure CykWd (Most Recently Used Blocks),d vksj rfkk iqjkru CykWd (Least Recently Used Blocks) nwljh vksj gksrs gsaa MkVkcsl ds mi;ksx ds lkfk&lkfk gh ;g lwph (List) Hkh yxkrkj ifjofrzr gksrh jgrh gsa MkVk ;fn MkVkcsl iqkby ls eseksjh esa Read fd;k tk jgk gks] rks blds iwoz Least Recently Used Blocks dks MkVkcsl iqkby ij Write fd;k tkrk gsa MkVkcsl ciqj ds'k ls bu CykWDl dks MkVkcsl iqkby ij Write djus dk ;g dk;z dsoy DBWR uked izkslsl ds }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gsa eseksjh esa ftrus vf/d MkVkcsl CykWd j[kuk lehko gks] vkwjsdy instance dh xfr Hkh mruh gh vfèkd gksrh gsa (b) Shared Pool Area SGA ds Shared Pool Area esa nks eq[;?kvd (Components) gksrs gsa % I. SQL Area II. Dictionary Cache leiw.kz 'ks;mz iwy {ks=k ds vkdkj esa ifjorzu djus ij gh bu nksuksa ds vkdkj dks ifjofrzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa I. SQL Area 'SQL Area' dks 'Library Cache' Hkh dgk tkrk gsa fø;kuo;u (Execution) ds fy, MkVkcsl lozj ij izsf"kr izr;sd SQL dfku ds fø;kuo;u ls iwoz bldh O;k[;k djuk (Parsing) vfuok;z gksrk gsa MkVkcsl lozj ij izsf"kr lelr SQL dfkukas ds fy, vkoj.k&lwpuk (Binding Information), ju&vkbe ciqj iklz&vªh (Parsetree) rfkk fø;kuo;u ;kstuk (Execution Plan) dh tkudkjh SGA ds SQL {ks=k esa gksrh gsaa pw fd Shared Pool Area dk vkdkj (Size) fuf'pr (Fixed) gksrk gs] vr% bl ckr dh lehkkouk Hkh gksrh gs fd Oracle Instance ds izkjehk ls vc rd fø;kfuor fd, x, lhkh dfku gesa fn[kkbz u nsa] D;ksafd vu; dfkuksa dks LFkku nsus ds fy, vkwjsdy fllve vko';drk gksus ij iqjkus dfkuksa dks Ýy'k (flush) dj nsrk gsa tc,d ;wtj dksbz SQL dfku fø;kfuor (Execute) djrk gs] rks ;g dfku SQL Area esa eseksjh LFkku (space) ysrk gsa ;fn dksbz vu; ;wtj Hkh mlh vkwctsdv ij Bhd ogh dfku fø;kfuor djrk gs S] rks vkwjsdy fllve dks bl dfku dh O;k[;k (Parsing) iqu% djus dh vko';drk ugha gksrh] D;ksafd blds fy, Parse-Tree rfkk Execution Plan igys ls gh SQL Area esa gksrk gsa lajpuk ds bl Hkkx ds dkj.k iqu% O;k[;k (Re-Parsing) ds Overhead dh cpr gksrh gsa SQL Area dks iz;ksx iklz (Parse) rfkk deikby (Compile) fd, tk pqds PL/SQL CykWd dks j[kus ds fy, Hkh fd;k tkrk gsa bu CykWDl dks,d gh bulvul ds fofhkuu ;wtj izkslsl ds chp 'ks;j fd;k tk ldrk gsa II. Disctionary Cache Shared Pool Area ds Dictionary Cache dk mi;ksx vkwjsdy fllve VscYl (Data Dictionary) ls izkir izfof"v;ksa (Entries) dks j[kus vkwjsdy lajpuk dk voyksdu 39

40 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 40 ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa MkVk fmd'kujh olrqr% MkVkcsl iqkby ij flfkr VscyYl dk lewg gksrk gsa pw fd] vkwjsdy fllve bu iqkbyksa dks vdlj,dlsl djrk gs] vr% izr;sd,dlsl ds nksjku yxus okys fmld I/O ls cpus ds fy, og bugsa eseksjh ds,d i`fkd&{ks=k (Separate-Area) eas j[krk gsa ds'k Lo;a MkVk fmd'kujh ls izkir MkVk dk,d mi&lewg j[krk gsa tc fdlh bulvul dks izfke ckj izkjehk (Start) fd;k tkrk gs] rks ;g izfof"v;ksa (Entries) ds,d izkjfehkd (Initial) lewg ds lkfk yksm gksrk gsa blds ckn vko';drk ds vuqlkj blesa MkVkcsl MkVk fmd'kujh ls MkVk tkrk gsa ds'k lhkh ;wtj] Vscy rfkk vu; vkwctsdv fllve dh lajpuk (Structure), lqj{kk (Security) rfkk LVksjst br;kfn dh tkudkjh j[krk gsa vko';drk ds vuqlkj MkVk MkVk fmd'kujh ds'k] 'ks;mz iwy {ks=k dh eseksjh dks ysdj c<+rk jgrk gsa ysfdu 'ks;mz iwy {ks=k dk vkdkj ges'kk fuf'pr (Fixed) gksrk gsa (c) Redo Cache fllve vkwctsdv~l rfkk ;wtj vkwctsdv~l esa fd, x, lelr ifjorzuksa dks Online Redo Log files esa fjdkwmz fd;k tkrk gsa bu ifjorzuksa dks Redo Log files ij fy[ks tkus ls iwoz vkwjsdy fllve bugsa Redo Cache uked eseksjh {ks=k eas j[krk gsa mnkgj.k % tc ds'k {ks=k iw.kz (full) gks tkrk gs vfkok dksbz VªkUtsD'ku tc 'COMMIT' dfku nsrk gs] rc Redo Log ds'k dh izfof"v;ksa dks Online Redo Log files ij fy[k fn;k tkrk gsa Redo Log files ij bl izdkj ds,d gh Disk Write (fmld ij MkVk fy[kuk) ds }kjk,d ls vf/d VªkUtsD'kuksa dh izfof"v;ksa (Entries) dks,d lkfk fy[kk tk ldrk gsa Redo Cache ls izfof"v;k Online Redo Log files ij fy[kus dk dk;z dsoy 'LGWR' uked Background process }kjk gh fd;k tkrk gsa (ii) Process Global Area (PGA) ^izkslsl Xykscy,fj;k* dks ^izksxzke Xykscy,fj;k* Hkh dgk tkrk gs SA bles a,d ;wtj izkslsl vfkok lozj izkslsl ds fy, MkVk,oa fu;a=k.k lajpuk (Control Structures) gksrs gs aa MkVkcsl ds izr;sd ;wtj izkslsl ds fy,,d&,d PGA gksrk gsa PGA dh oklrfod fo"k;&lwph (Contents) rks bl ckr ij fuhkzj (Depend) gksrh gs fd cgq&lw=kh; (Multi Threaded) lozj fou;kl dks dk;kzfuor (Implement) fd;k x;k gs vfkok ughaa ijurq] vkn'kz :i ls (Typically) blesa Session Variables, Arrarys, Row results rfkk vu; lwpukvksa dks j[kus ds fy, eseksjh gksrh gsa ;fn vkwjsdy fllve esa cgq&lw=kh; lozj dk iz;ksx fd;k tk jgk gks] rks lkeku;r% PGA ij j[kh tkus okyh dqn lwpukvksa dks PGA ds LFkku ij SGA ij j[kk tkrk gsa PGA dk vkdkj (Size) vkwjsdy fllve dks fø;kfuor (Run) djus ds fy, iz;ksx fd, tk jgs vkwijsfvax fllve ij fuhkzj gksrk gs rfkk,d ckj fu/kzfjr gks tkus ij ;g vkdkj ifjofrzr ugha gksrka ;wtj izkslsl esa fd, tk jgs dk;ks± dh ek=kk (Amount) ds vuqlkj PGA dh eseksjh c<+rh vfkok?kvrh ughaa MkVkcsl iz'kkld 'INIT.ORA' uked iqkby ds dqn isjkehvlz esa ifjorzu djds PGA ds vkdkj dks fu;af=kr (Control) dj ldrk gsa blds fy, izk;% iz;ksx fd;k tkus okyk,d isjkehvj 'SORT_AREA_SIZE' gsa (iii)oracle Programs ge tkurs gsa fd DykbaV ij pkgs ftl izksxzke (tsls& SQL*Plus, Oracle Forms, Reports br;kfn) dk iz;ksx fd;k tk jgk gks] ysfdu] lozj dksm lnso leku (Same) gh gksrk gsa dqn Platforms ij lozj dksm dks vkwjsdy izksxzke ds fy, dsoy,d ckj eseksjh esa yksm (Load) fd;k tkrk gs] rfkk lhkh izkslsl bls vkil esa 'ks;j djrs gsaa blls eseksjh dh cpr gksrh gsaa

41 a (D) fllve MkVkcsl vkwctsdv~l (System Database Objects) ^fllve MkVkcsl vkwctsdv*] vkwjsdy fllve ds os vkwctsdv gsa] tks vkwjsdy lajpuk dh dk;ziz.kkyh dk lefkzu (support) djrs gsa rfkk MkVkcsl dh lajpuk ds fo"k; esa tkudkjh iznku djrs gsaa dqn izeq[k fllve MkVkcsl vkwctsdv fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) MkVk fmd'kujh (Data Dictionary) (ii) jksycsd lsxeasv (Rollback Segments) (iii) VsEijjh lsxeasv (Temporary Segments) (iv) cwvlvªsi@ds'k lsxeasv (Bootstrap/Cache Segment) bu lhkh fllve MkVkcsl vkwctsdv~l dks vkxs folrkj ls le>k;k x;k gs % (i) MkVk fmd'kujh (Data Dictionary) fdlh Hkh MkVkcsl ea s lozizfke fllve ds fy, vko';d Vscy fufezr fd, tkrs gs aa vkwjsdy es a bu VscYl dks fllve Vscy vfkok vkwjsdy MkVk fmd'kujh dgk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy dk 'SYS' uked ;wtj bu lhkh fllve Vscy dk Owner gksrk gsa 'SYS', vkwjsdy dk izfke ;wtj vdkmuv gs] ftls vkwjsdy fllve Lo;a fufezr djrk gsa ftl izdkj fdlh 'kcndks'k (Dictionary) es a fdlh Hkk"kk ls lacaf/r 'kcnks dk ladyu fd;k tkrk gs] mlh izdkj vkwjsdy MkVk fmd'kujh ea s vkwjsdy MkVkcsl dh lajpuk (Structure) rfkk mles a iz;ksx fd, tk jgs vkwctsdv~l ls lacaf/r lwpuk, j[kh tkrh gs aa MkVkcsl ls lacaf/r fdlh lwpuk vfkok tkudkjh dh vko';drk gksus ij] bls izkir djus ds fy, vkwjsdy bl MkVk fmd'kujh dks,dlsl djrk gsa blh izdkj izr;sd DDL (Data Definition Language) vfkok DML (Data Manipulation Language) ds dfkuksa dks fø;kfuor djus ds fy, Hkh bu fllve VscYl dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu VscYl dks dhkh Hkh izr;{k :i ls (Directly) v ru (update) ugha fd;k tkrka tc Hkh dksbz DDL dfku fø;kfuor gksrk gs rks Background esa ;s Vscy vimsv gks tkrs gsaa dsunzh; MkVk fmd'kujh VscYl esa,slh lwpuk, gksrh gsa] ftugsa le>uk dfbu gksrk gsa vr% bu fllve VscYl dks vf/d vfkziw.kz (Meaningful) cukus ds fy, vkwjsdy fllve] Views dk,d lewg iznku djrk gsa MkVk fmd'kujh esa 170 ls Hkh vf/d Views gksrs gsaa ftugsa fueufyf[kr dek.m }kjk ns[kk tk ldrk gs % SELECT*FROM DICT; SQL (Structured Query Language) ds fdlh Hkh dfku dh O;k[;k djus ds fy, vkwjsdy dks MkVk fmd'kujh VscYl esa j[kh lwpukvksa dh vko';drk gksrh gsa bu lwpukvksa dks System Global Area (SGA) ds MkVk fmd'kujh {ks=k esa ds'k (Cache) fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy esa lcls igys fufezr gksus okyk VscyLisl 'SYSTEM' uked Vscy Lisl gksrk gsa vr% LVksjst ds fy, MkVk fmd'kujh Vscy "SYSTEM" Vscy Lisl esa lfeefyr MkVkcsl iqkbyksa dk iz;ksx djrs gsaa (ii) jksycsd lsxesav (Rollback Segments) vkwjsdy eas tc fdlh MkVk esa ifjorzu (Change) fd;k tkrk gs] rks bl ifjorzu dks iw.kzr% fu;qdr (Commit) vfkok izfrykse (Reverse) djuk vfuok;z gsa fdlh ifjorzu dks jn~n djuk vkwjsdy esa Roll-back dgykrk gsa tc fdlh ifjorzu dks Roll-back fd;k tkrk gs] rks ml CykWd dk MkVk iqu% ifjorzu ds igys okyh flfkfr esa yksv vkrk gsa Roll-back segments os fllve vkwctsdv gas] tks okilh dh bl izfø;k esa lgk;d gksrs gsaa tc Hkh fdlh,iyhds'ku Vscy vfkok fllve Vscy esa fdlh Hkh izdkj dk dksbz ifjorzu fd;k tkrk gs] rks ;s Roll-back Segments, ifjofrzr fd, tk jgs MkVk ds iwoz&laldj.k (Previous Version) dks j[krs gsa] rkfd Rollback dh vko';drk gksus ij MkVk dk iqjkuk laldj.k (Old Version) miyc/ gks ldsa ;fn vu; ;wtlz MkVk dks ml le; ns[kuk pkgrs gsa] tcfd mls ifjofrzr fd;k tkuk ckdh (Pending) gs] rks,slh flfkfr esa os lnso gh Roll-back Segment ls MkVk ds iwoz&laldj.k vkwjsdy lajpuk dk voyksdu Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1-vkWjsdy iqkbysa D;k gas\ 2- DBMR D;k gksrk gs\ 3- Dispatchers D;k gs\ 41

42 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 42 (Previous-Version) dks,dlsl dj ldrs gsaa,d ckj bu ifjorzuksa dks fu;qdr (Commit) dj fn, tkus ij MkVk dk ifjofrzr laldj.k (Modified Version) miyc/ gks tkrk gsa Roll-back Segments dk Owner (Lokeh) lnso gh 'SYS' ;wtj gksrk gsa bugsa fdlh Hkh vu; ;wtj bugsa,dlsl ugha dj ldrka MkVkcsl ds izr;sd vkwctsdv dks LVksj djus ds fy, mls MkVkcsl iqkby esa Øfed (Contiguous) CykWd iznku fd, tkrs gsaa bu Øfed CykWDl dks,dlvsuv dgk tkrk gsa Rollback Segments dks Hkh vu; lsxeasv~l dh gh rjg Extents esa gh LVksj fd;k tkrk gsa gkykafd] Roll-back Segments ds fy, U;wure (Minimum) nks Extents dh vko';drk gksrh gsa tc dksbz MkVkcsl fufezr fd;k tkrk gs] rks izfke Roll-back segment Lo;a fufezr gks tkrk gsa bl Roll-back segment dk uke SYSTEM gksrk gs rfkk ;g LVksjst ds fy, 'SYSTEM' uked VscyLisl dk iz;ksx djrk gsa (iii) VsEijjh lsxesav (Temporary Segments) Structured Query Language (SQL) dfkuksa dks fofhkuu pj.kksa (Stages) esa izkslsl fd;k tkrk gsa izkslsl ds izkjehk rfkk var ds chp gksus okys eè;orhz pj.kksa (Intermediate Stages) ds fy, vlfkk;h dk;z&{ks=k dh vko';drk gksrh gsa vkwjsdy dh MkVkcsl iqkby esa bl izdkj dk vlfkk;h dk;z&{ks=k iznku djus dk dk;z 'Temporary Segments' }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa SQL dfkuksa dh izkslsflax vfkok MkVk dh lkwfv±x (Sorting) tsls dk;ks± ds nksjku vkwjsdy fllve Lor% gh Temporary Segments fufezr djrk gs rfkk tc 'System Monitor' (SMON)' Background izkslsl ds fy, mudh vko';drk iw.kz gks tkrh gs] rks bu Temporary Segments dks Lor% gh fmyhv dj fn;k tkrk gsa ;fn dk;z djus ds fy, cgqr NksVs {ks=k dh vko';drk gks] rks vkwjsdy fllve dkbz Temporary Segment fufezr ugha djrka blds LFkku ij Program Global Area (PGA) eseksjh ds,d Hkkx dks vlfkk;h dk;z&{ks=k ds :i esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy esa eq[; :i ls fueufyf[kr dk;ks± ds fy, Temporary Segments fufezr djus dh vko';drk gksrh gs % (1) bumsdl dk fuekz.k (Creating an Index) (2) 'SELECT' dfkuksa esa 'ORDER BY', 'DISTINCT' vfkok 'GROUP BY' fo/s;ksa (Clauses) dk iz;ksxa (3) Set Operators, tsls& 'UNION', 'INTERSECT' rfkk 'MINIUS' dk iz;ksxa (4) VscYl ds chp laf/;ksa (Joins) dk fuekz.ka (5) mi&iz'uksa (Sub-Queries) dk iz;ksxa izr;sd ;wtj ds fy, vkwjsdy MkVkcsl iz'kkld ;g fu/kzfjr dj ldrk gs fd fdl ;wtj ds fy, Temporary Segments fdu Tablespaces esa fufezr (Create) gksaxsa (iv) cwv LVªSi@dS'k lsxesav (Boot Strap/Cache Segment) cwvlvªsi Fkok ds'k lsxesav vkwjsdy fllve dk,d vu; MkVkcsl vkwctsdv gsa System Global Area (SGA) ds 'ks;mz iwy esa MkVk fmd'kujh ds'k dh izkjfehkd (Initial) yksfmax djrs le; bl lsxesav dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa tc MkVk fmd'kujh ds Instance dks izfke ckj izkjahk fd;k tkrk gs] vfkok mls can djds iqu% izkjahk (Re-Start) fd;k tkrk gs] dsoy mlh le; vkwjsdy fllve bl Bootstrap/ Cache lsxeasv dk iz;ksx djrk gsa,d ckj MkVk fmd'kujh ds'k dh izkjfehkd (Initial) yksfmax dj ysus ij] 'ks"k ds'k eseksjh dk iz;ksx MkVkcsl ij ;wt gksus okys fofhkuu dfkuksa ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa

43 3.2 MkVk dh lqj{kk (Protecting Data) fdlh Hkh izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u (Execution) ds fy, bls fofhkuu lwpukvksa rfkk tkudkjh dh vko';drk gksrh gsa ;s lwpuk, ;wtj }kjk fn, x, buiqv ds :i esa izksxzke rd igq pkbz tkrh gsaa lwpukvksa ds vk/kj ij gh izksxzke dk;z djrk gsa lkeku;r% bugsa fdlh iqkby ij lafpr (Save) djds j[kk tkrk gs] rkfd bugsa Hkfo"; esa iqu% iz;ksx fd;k tk ldsa bl izdkj fllve dks izsf"kr (Send) rfkk fllve esa lafpr (Stored) dh xbz lwpukvksa rfkk tkudkjh dks ^MkVk (Data)* dgrs gsaa fdlh Hkh izksxzke vfkok dei;wvj fllve ds fy, MkVk,d vr;ar egroiw.kz rro gksrk gsa lhkh izdkj dh x.kuk, MkVk ij gh vk/kfjr gksrh gsa ;fn MkVk viw.kz vfkok v'kq¼ gks] rks izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u ds i'pkr~ gesa vlr; rfkk v'kq¼ ifj.kke gh izkir gksasxsa vr% izr;sd dei;wvj fllve esa MkVk dks lqjf{kr j[kuk vr;ar vko';d dk;z gsa vkwjsdy lajpuk esa MkVk dh lqj{kk (Protection) ds fy, vusd fof/;k gksrh gsaa bl Hkkx esa bu fof/ ;ksa dh ppkz dh xbz gsa ;s fof/;k fueufyf[kr gsa % (A) Transactions, Commit and Rollback (B) Data Integrity (v[k.mrk) (C) Privileges (fo'ks"kkf/dkj) (D) Backup & Recovery bu lhkh fof/;ksa dks ;gk folrkj ls le>k;k x;k gs % (A) Transactions, Commit and Rollback VªkUtsD'ku (Transaction) fofhkuu izfø;kvksa dk,d lewg gs] tks fdlh MkVkcsl vuqiz;ksx (Application) esa,d rdzlaxr (Logical) dk;z iw.kz djrk gsa iz zr;sd VªkUtsD'ku,d vfkok,d ls vf/d SQL dfkuksa (Statements) ls feydj cuk gksrk gsa MkVkcsl ds lkfk ;wtj ds lac¼ (Connect) gksus ij,d VªkUtsD'ku izkjehk gksrk gsa dksbz 'COMMIT' vfkok 'ROOLBACK' dfku (Statement) fy[kus ij VªkUtsD'ku lekir gks tkrk gs rfkk,d u;k VªkUtsD'ku izkjehk gks tkrk gsa 'COMMIT' rfkk 'ROLLBACK' ds }kjk VªkUtsD'ku ds lelr ifjorzu lafpr (Save) vfkok fujlr (Cancel) gks tkrs gsaa MkVkcsl esa fdlh Hkh ifjorzu dks rc rd lafpr ugha fd;k tkrk] tc rd ;wtj Lo;a (Explicitely) ;g fuèkkzfjr u djs] fd Insert, Update rfkk Delete dfkuksa (Statements) }kjk fd, tk jgs ifjorzuksa dks LFkk;h :i ls lafpr djuk gsa,slk djus ds fy, 'COMMIT' vkns'k (Command) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blls iwoz lelr ifjorzu vfufezr (Pending) flfkfr esa jgrs gsa rfkk bl nksjku dksbz Hkh foiqyrk (Failure) mriuu gksus ij ;s ifjorzu fujlr (Cancel) gks tkrs gsaa fdlh VªkUtsD'ku ds ifjorzuksa dks LFkk;h (Permanent) :i ls lafpr djus ds fy, 'COMMIT' vkns'k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa,d ckj 'COMMIT' dj fn, tkus ij bu ifjorzuksa dks iqu% izfrykse (Reverse) ugha fd;k tk ldrka blds foijhr 'ROLLBACK' vkns'k dk iz;ksx VªkUtsD'ku esa fd, x, lhkh ifjorzuksa dks fujlr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa,d ckj 'ROLLBACK' dj fn, tkus ij bu ifjorzuksa dks iqu% 'COMMIT' ugha fd;k tk ldrka vkwjsdy fllve esa dfku&lrj (Statement-Level) VªkUtsD'ku Hkh ik;k tkrk gsa ;fn,d VªkUtsD'ku ds,d dfku (Statement) dk dksbz Hkkx foiqy (Fail) gks tk,] rks blls leiw.kz fofku foiqy gks tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % ;fn,d INSERT dfku ds }kjk 100 iafdr;ka (Rows) fy[kh tk jgh gsa] rks blesa ;k rks lhkh 100 iafdr;k fy[kh tk,axh vfkok dksbz Hkh iafdr ugha fy[kh tk,xha vfkkzr~ ;k rks dfku iwjh rjg dk;z djsxk] vfkok fcydqy gh dk;z ugha djsxka,slh flfkfr es a ;fn dksbz,d dfku foiqy gks tkrk gs] rks VªkUtsD'ku ds 'ks"k dfku vfuf.kzr (Pending) flfkfr es a gksrs gs aa vr% bugs a 'COMMIT' vfkok 'ROLLBACK' djuk vfuok;z gksrk gsa ;fn dksbz ;wtj izkslsl vlkeku; flfkfr ds dkj.k lekir gks tkrh gs] rks bl le; PMON lhkh ifjorzuksa dks Lor% ROLLBACK dj nsrk gsa vlkeku; flfkfr mriuu gksus ls iwoz COMMIT fd, x, ifjorzu cus jgrs gsaa COMMIT vfkok ROLLBACK djus ij VªkUtsD'ku ds lhkh Locks,oa vu; lalk/u eqdr gks tkrs gsaa cgqr cms+,oa tfvy VªkUtsD'ku esa leiw.kz VªkUtsD'ku ds fdlh NksVs Hkkx dks COMMIT djus ds fy, SAVEPOINTS dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy lajpuk dk voyksdu 43

44 a vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 44 (B) Data Integrity fllve esa j[ks x, MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Integrity) cuk, j[kuk vko';d gksrk gsa bldk vfkz ;g gs fd MkVkcsl esa dsoy izkekf.kd MkVk gh gksuk pkfg,a mnkgj.k % ;fn izfr'kr (Percentage) dk eku j[kuk gks] rks ;g lnso 0 ls 100 ds chp gh gksuk pkfg,a vr% bl ckr dh tkap djuk vko';d gs fd izfr'kr ds fy, fn;k tk jgk izr;sd eku 0 ls 100 ds chp gh gks] rkfd dsoy izkekf.kd eku gh MkVkcsl esa j[kk tk,a bls MkVk v[k.mrk (Integrity) dgrs gsaa MkVk bavhfxzvh dh tkap djus rfkk bls cuk, j[kus ds fy, vkwjsdy es a fueufyf[kr fof/;ks a dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs% (i) Integrity Constraints MkVk dh v[k.mrk dks tkapus rfkk bls cuk, j[kus ds fy, fllve ds VscYl ij dqn fu;eksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bugsa fø;kfuor djus ds fy, Integrity Constraints dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;s Constraints leiw.kz MkVkcsl ij ykxw gks tkrs gsaa vr% MkVkcsl ds fdlh Hkh Vscy ij dksbz Insert, Update vfkok Delete dfku fn, tkus ij ;s Constraints Lor% izhkkfor jgrs gsaa ;fn fdlh Hkh constraint dks rksm+k x;k] rks lacaf/r Insert, Update vfkok Delete dfku Roll-back gks tkrk gsa vkwjsdy esa fdlh Vscy ij NOT NULL, PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE KEY, FOREIGN KEY, CHECK Constraings rfkk INDEX ds }kjk Integrity Constraints dks ykxw fd;k tkrk gsa iqlrd ds vxys Hkkxksa esa bugsa folrkkj ls le>k;k x;k gsa (ii) Database Triggers MkVkcsl fvªxj PL/SQL esa fy[kk x;k,d dksm&cykwd gksrk gs] ftls fdlh Vscy ij fn, tkus okys Insert, Update,oa Delete dfkuksa dh tkap djus ds fy, ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa bls fdlh,d dfku vfkok izr;sd iafdr ij fø;kfuor gksus ds fy, ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa vkwjsdy esa MkVk dh v[k.mrk rfkk fo'oluh;rk dks cuk, j[kus ds fy, fvªxj vr;ar mi;ksxh lk/u gsaa tslk fd] blesa uke ls gh Li"V gs] buls lacaf/r Insert, Update vfkok Delete dfku ds fø;kfuor gksus ij ;s Lor% gh izkjahk gks tkrs gsaa vkwjsdy esa fdlh Hkh Vscy ij ckjg fofhkuu?kvukvksa (Events) ds fy, fvªxj dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa bu ckjg?kvukvksa esa ls izr;sd ds fy,,d ls vf/d fvªxj Hkh ifjhkkf"kr fd;s tk ldrs gsaa fofhkuu fu;eks a] dks ykxw djus ds vfrfjdr fvªxj dk iz;ksx vu; VscYl es a MkVk Insert, Update rfkk Delete djus ds fy, Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa lkfk gh fvªxj vu; PL/SQL izkslhtlz dks dkwy Hkh dj ldrs gs aa fvªxlz rfkk dulvª suv~l es a,d eq[; varj ;g gs fd fvªxj es a SQL dfkuks dks Hkh tksm+k tk ldrk gs] tcfd] dulvª suv~l es a,slk djus dh vuqefr ugha gksrha (C) Privileges (fo'ks"kkf/dkj) fdlh Hkh lalfkk (Institution) tsls& Bank, Company br;kfn] esa vusd ;wtj dk;zjr gksrs gsa buesa ls izr;sd ;wtj dk nkf;ro (Responsibility) rfkk Lrj (Status) fhkuu&fhkuu gksrk gsa ;fn fofhkuu ;wtj fdlh MkVkcsl dk iz;skx dj jgs gksa] rks bl ckr dks lqfuf'pr djuk vr;ar vko';d gksrk gs fd ;wtj dsoy mlh MkVk rd igqap lds] ftls ns[kus vfkok ftlesa ifjorzu djus ds fy, og ;wtj vf/ñr (Authorized) gsa vu;fkk] ;fn vukf/ñr (Unauthorized) ;wtj }kjk fdlh MkVk dks,dlsl fd;k tkrk gs] rks blls MkVk dh lqj{kk (Security) rfkk v[k.mrk (Integrity) izhkkfor gks ldrh gsa MkVk ds vuf/ñr iz;ksx ls lwpukvksa dks lqjf{kr j[kus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa vusd izhkkoh lqj{kk fof/;k miyc/ gsaa vkwjsdy esa MkVk dks izkir djus] ns[kus] mls ifjofrzr djus] gvkus] u, VscYl dk fuekz.k djus] mudh lajpuk ifjofrzr djus vfkok mugsa fevkus br;kfn lhkh dk;ks± ds fy, fofhkuu ;wtlz dks muds nkf;ro (Responsibility) rfkk Lrj (Status) ds vuqlkj dqn fo'ks"k vf/ dkj iznku fd, tkrs gsaa bugs izkf/dkj dgrs gsaa ;gk izr;sd ;wtj fdlh Hkh MkVkcsl ij dsoy ogh dk;z dj ldrk gs] ftlds fy, mls fo'ks"kkf/dkj (Privilege) fn;k x;k gsa mnkgj.k % ;fn fdlh ;wtj dks MkVkcsl Vscy ds fy, dsoy Vscy dk MkVk ns[kus dk gh vf/ dkj fn;k x;k gs] rks og ;wtj dsoy 'SELECT' dfku dh lgk;rk ls Vscy ds MkVk dks ns[k ldrk gsa ijurq] vu; dksbz dk;z djus dk vf/dkj u gksus ds dkj.k] og ;wtj Vscy esa ifjorzu djus (ALTER) vfkok mlesa j[ks MkVk dks fevkus (DELETE) br;kfn dk;z ugha dj ldrka

45 a vkwjsdy fllve es a ;wtlz dks ;s izkf/dkj iznku djus dk vf/dkj MkVkcsl iz'kkld ds ikl gh gksrk gsa ;fn fdlh ;wtj dks,d vkwctsdv (tsls& Table) fufezr djus dk vf/dkj izkir gs] rks ml ;wtj }kjk fufezr (Created) lhkh vkwctsdv~l dk LokfeRo (Ownership),oa fu;a=k.k (Controlling) dk vf/dkj ml ;wtj ds ikl gksrk gsa fdlh vu; ;wtj }kjk fufezr Objects dks vfhkxe (Access) djus ds fy, ml vkwctsdv ds Owner ls vf/dkj izkir djuk vko';d gsa vkwjsdy eas izkf/dkjksa ds nks Lrj gksrs gsa % (i) System Level Privileges System Level Privileges,,sls fo'ks"kkf/dkj gsa] tks fdlh ;wtj ds fy, leiw.kz vkwjsdy fllve ij ykxw jgrs gsaa mnkgj.k % ;fn dksbz fof'k"v ;wtj fdlh Hkh Vscy ij,d Trigger fufezr djuk pkgrk gs] rks ml ;wtj ds ikl 'CREATE TRIGGER' uked fllve izkf/dkj gksuk vko';d gsa blh izdkj ;wtj ;fn MkVkcsl ds lkfk leidz (Connection) LFkkfir djuk pkgrk gs] rks blds fy, 'CREATE SESSION' uked izkf/dkj gksuk vko';d gsa vkwjsdy esa 80 ls vf/d fllve izkf/dkj miyc/ gsa] ftugsa MkVkcsl iz'kkld fofhkuu ;wtlz dks iznku dj ldrk gsa (ii) Object Level Privileges System Level Privileges fdlh ;wtj vfkok dk;z ds fy, leiw.kz fllve ij izhkkoh gksrs gsaa ijurq] ;fn fdlh fof'k"v System Object (Table, view br;kfn) ds fy, ;wtj dks izkf/dkj iznku djuk gks] rks blds fy, Objects-Level Privileges dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Object Level Privileges, fdlh fof'k"v vkwctsdv ij dksbz fof'k"v dk;z (Select, Insert, Update, Delete br;kfn) djus dk vf/dkj iznku djrs gsaa fdlh vkwctsdv dks fu;af=kr djus dk leiw.kz vf/dkj ml vkwctsdv ds Owner ds ikl gksrk gsa vr% vkwctsdv ds Owner dks ml vkwctsdv ij dk;z djus ds fy, izkf/dkj izkir djus dh vko';drk ugha gksrha olrqr% Owner Lo;a gh vu; ;wtlz dks ml vkwctsdv ds fy, izkf/dkj iznku dj ldrk gsa ;wtlz dks izkf/dkj iznku djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'GRANT' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa izkf/dkj ds O;oLFkkiu gsrq vkwjsdy esa 'User',oa 'Roles' dh ladyiuk (Concept) gksrh gsa ;fn fofhkuu ;wtlz dks vyx&vyx izkf/dkj iznku fd, tkus gsa] rks ;g dk;z izr;sd ;wtj ds fy, fhkuu&fhkuu 'GRANT' dfku fy[kdj fd;k tkrk gsa ijurq] ;fn,d ls vf/d ;wtlz dks leku (Same) izkf/dkj fn, tkus gsa] rks bugsa lhkh dks,d Role (drzo;) iznku dj fn;k tkrk gsa blds ckn ml Role ij izkf/dkj fn, tkrs gsaa ;s Privileges Lor% gh ml Role ls lacaf/r lhkh ;wtlz dks izkir gks tkrs gsaa vkwjsdy esa fdlh ;wtj dks iznku fd, x, izkf/dkj vko';drk ds vuqlkj fujlr djds ;wtj ls okil Hkh fy, tk ldrs gsaa fdlh ;wtj dks iznrr izkf/dkj okil ysus dh bl izfø;k dks 'Revoking' dgk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy esa blds fy, 'REVOKE' dfku dk i;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (D) Back & Recovery fdlh Hkh MkVkcsl es a leiw.kz fllve vfkok blds fdlh gkmzos;j vfkok izksxzke es a foiqyrk (Failure) dh flfkfr mriuu gksus dh lehkkouk gksrh gsa ;g foiqyrk fofhkuu vkarfjd ifjflfkfr;ks a tsls& ;wtj }kjk dksbz xyr dek.m fn, tkus] xyr izdkj dk MkVk iznku djus vfkok SQL dh fdlh izfø;k (Process) ds foiqy gksus br;kfn ds dkj.k mriuu gks ldrh gsa blh izdkj gkmzos;j ls lacaf/r lel;kvks a,oa =kqfv;ks a (Errors) ds dkj.k Hkh fllve foiqy gks ldrk gsa bu fofhkuu vkarfjd ifjflfkfr;ks a ds vfrfjdr dhkh&dhkh dqn ckgjh (External) ifjflfkfr;ks a tsls& vfxu&dkam] Hkwdai br;kfn Hkh"k.k izkñfrd vkinkvks a ds dkj.k Hkh leiw.kz ra=k foiqy gks ldrk gsa fdlh Hkh fllve vfkok dk;z (Operation) ds fy, MkVk vr;ar egroiw.kz rro gksrk gsa MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Integrity) rfkk lqj{kk dks cuk, j[kuk vfr vko';d gsa ;fn fdlh Hkh foiqyrk ds dkj.k MkVkcsl dh lajpuk vfkok mlesa lafpr MkVk izhkkfor ;k u"v gks tk,] rks blls vusd xahkhj lel;k, mriuu gks ldrh gsaa vr% MkVk dh lqj{kk,oa,dkrerk dks lqfuf'pr djus ds fy, bl MkVk dks,d ls vf/d LFkkuksa ij lafpr fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj,d gh MkVk dks lqj{kk dh n`f"v ls fofhkuu LFkkuksa ij lafpr (Save) djus dh izfø;k dks 'Back-up' dgrs gsaa vkwjsdy lajpuk dk voyksdu Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 4- SGA dks fdrus Hkkxks a es fohkkftr fd;k x;k gs\ 5- Recovery Manager ds ckjs esa vki D;k tkurs gsa\ 45

46 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 46 fllve es a dksbz Hkh foiqyrk mriuu gksus ij ml foiqyrk ds dkj.kks a dks Kkr djuk rfkk mugs a nwj djds fllve dks iqu% lkeku; flfkfr es a okil ykuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;fn fdlh xahkhj foiqyrk ds dkj.k fllve dk MkVk izhkkfor vfkok u"v gks x;k gks] rks bl MkVk dks iqu% izkir djuk egroiw.kz dk;z gsa bl izdkj fdlh MkVk dks iqu% izkir djus dh izfø;k dks 'Recovery' dgk tkrk gsa (i) Back-up fllve esa lafpr MkVk dh,dkrerk,oa lqj{kk dks lqfuf'pr djus ds fy, Back-up,oa Recovery nks vr;ar egroiw.kz izfø;k, gsaa fdlh xahkhj gkmzos;j foiqyrk] tsls& Hard-Disk u"v gks tkus] dh flfkfr esa MkVk dks iqu% izkir dj ikuk lahko ugha gsa bl izdkj dh lel;kvksa ls cpus ds fy, MkVkcsl dk Back-up ysuk vko';d gksrk gsa MkVkcsl backup ds fy, fueufyf[kr fof/;ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs% (a) System Back-up bl izdkj ds Back-up esa MkVkcsl ds izr;sd vkwctsdv tsls& Tables, Logs, Files br;kfn lhkh dk Back-up fy;k tkrk gs SA fllve Back-up ds nksjku MkVkcsl,oa mlls lacaf/r lhkh izfø;k, can djuk vko';d gksrk gsa vfkkzr~ System Back-up ds nksjku MkVkcsl ij dksbz dk;z ugha fd;k tk ldrka (b) Partial Back-up ;fn leiw.kz MkVkcsl ds fdlh,d Hkkx dk Back-up fy;k tk,] rks bls vkaf'kd (Partial) Back-up dgk tkrk gsa bl izdkj ds Back-up esa MkVk iqkbyksa vfkok fu;a=k.k (Control) iqkbyksa dk Back-up fy;k tkrk gsa ;g back-up MkVkcsl ds 'ARCHIVE LOG MODE' esa fy;k tkrk gsa Partial Back-up ds fy, MkVkcsl dks can djus dh vko';drk ugha gksrh gsa (c) Remote Back-up Hkh"k.k izkñfrd vkinkvksa,oa nq?kzvukvksa tsls& vkx] Hkwdai br;kfn ifjflfkfr;ksa esa fdlh,d LFkku ij flfkr leiw.kz Hkou vfkok bekjr (Building) gh {kfrxzlr ;k u"v gks tk,] rks blls ml LFkku (Location) ij j[kk x;k lelr MkVk u"v gks ldrk gsa,slh vlkeku; ifjflfkfr;ksa ls lqj{kk djus ds fy, dhkh&dhkh vfr&egroiw.kz MkVk dk back-up fdlh nwljh bekjr (Building) vfkok nwjlfk LFkku ij flfkr dei;wvlz esa j[kk tkrk gsa bls nwjlfk (Remote) back-up dgrs gsaa blds fy, lkeku;r% usvofd±x vfkok buvjusv dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (ii) Recovery Back-up }kjk lqjf{kr fd, x, MkVk dks iqu% izkir djus dh izfø;k Recovery dgykrh gsa fjdojh ds fy, fueufyf[kr lajpukvksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs % (a) Recovery Manager (b) Image Copy Back-up bu nksuksa lajpukvksa dks ;gka le>k;k x;k gs % (a) Recovery Manager Recovery Manager,d Off-Line lqfo/k gs] ftls Back-up rfkk Recovery ds dk;ks± esa MkVkcsl iz'kkld (Administrator) dh lgk;rk djus ds fy, cuk;k x;k gsa Back-up rfkk Recovery ds lkfk gh Recovery Manager bu dk;ks± ls lacaf/r lwpukvksa dks lafpr (save) Hkh djrk gsa blds fy, Recovery Manager }kjk 'Recovery Catalog' uked,d MkVkcsl j[kk tkrk gs] ftlesa back-up rfkk recovery ls lacaf/r tkudkjh gksrh gsa (b) Image Copy Back-up Image Copy Back-up }kjk,d MkVk iqkby dks fmld esa fdlh vu; LFkku ij vfkok fllve fdlh vu; fmld ij Copy fd;k tk ldrk gsa MkVkcsl esa dksbz foiqyrk mriuu gksus ij bl Back-up Copy ls MkVk dks iqu% izkir (Recover) fd;k tk ldrk gsa fllve foiqyrk dh flfkfr esa bl izdkj Back-up Copy ls Recovery djuk lokzf/d rhoz (Fast) izfø;k gsa lkjka'k (Summary) HkkSfrd :i ls vkwjsdy MkVkcsl olrqr% vusd iqkbyksa dk laxzg gsa ;s iqkbysa dqn Binary files gksrh gsa] ftugsa dsoy vkwjsdy duszy lkwývos;j dh lgk;rk ls gh ns[kk tk ldrk gsa rkfdzd :i ls (Logically) MkVkcsl dks fofhkuu vkwjsdy ;wtj vdkmav~l (User accounts) ds }kjk fohkkftr fd;k tkrk gsa izr;sd ;wtj ds fy,,d fof'k"v ;wtj&uke (user-name) rfkk iklomz (Password) gksrk gsa mfpr ;wtj&use rfkk iklomz ds }kjk gh MkVkcsl dks,dlsl fd;k tk ldrk gsa

47 lhkh izdkj ds MkVk, lwpukvksa br;kfn dks j[kus ds fy, vkwjsdy fllve fofhkuu izdkj dh iqkbyksa dk iz;ksx djrk gsa vkwjsdy dh os iqkbysa] ftuesa oklrfod (Actual) MkVk j[kk tkrk gs] mugsa MkVkcsl iqkbysa dgrs gs aa vkwjsdy esa MkVkcsl ls lecfu/r fofhkuu lwpukvksa ds fu;a=k.k (Control) ds fy, dqn iqkbyksa dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu iqkbyksa dks fu;a=k.k iqkby dgrs gsaa vkwjsdy esa System Objects vfkok User Objects ij fd, tkus okys lhkh ifjorzuksa dks dqn fo'ks"k iqkbyksa esa vafdr (Record) fd;k tkrk gsa bugsa Redo Logs dgrs gsaa MkVkcsl ij gksus okyk izr;sd ifjorzu Online Redo Files ij vafdr fd;k tkrk gsa tc dksbz Online Redo Log file ifjiw.kz gks tkrh gs] rks bu files dks nqckjk iz;ksx djus gsrq buesa vafdr MkVk dks dqn fo'ks"k files esa Copy dj fy;k tkrk gsa bugsa Offline Redo Log vfkok Archived Redo log files dgrs gsaa vkwjsdy fllve esa MkVkcsl dk iz;ksx djus ds fy, dqn System Processes dk lnso miyc/ rfkk fø;k'khy (Active) gksuk vko';d gksrk gsa vfkkzr~ ;s izfø;k, fllve ds fy, vfuok;z gsaa vr% bugsa Mandatory System Processes dgk tkrk gsa DBWR (Database writer), vkwjsdy esa Backround (i`"bhkwfe) ij dk;z djusokyh,d izkslsl gsa ;g izkslsl SGA (System Global Area) esa ifjorzu fd, x, MkVkcsl dks MkVkcsl iqkby ij fy[kus dk dk;z djrh gsa Log writer izkslsl SGA (System Global Area) ds Redo Buffer dh izfof"v;ksa (Entries) dks Online Redo Log Files ij fy[kus dk dk;z djrh gsa SMON izkslsl leiw.kz vkwjsdy fllve ds voyksdu (Monitoring) dk dk;z djrh gsa Process Monitor (PMON) vkwjsdy fllve esa lhkh user processes ds voyksdu (Monitoring) dk dk;z djrh gsa ;fn MkVkcsl 'ARCHIVELOG' fof/ (Mode) ij pyk;k tk jgk gks] rks Online redo Log files dh,d izfr (copy) fufezr djds fmld es a j[kus ds fy, 'ARCH' uked izkslsl dks izkjehk (Start) fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy esa fllve izkslslsl ds vfrjfdr dqn vu; izfø;k, Hkh gksrh gsaa budk iz;ksx eq[;r% ;wtj ds fllve rfkk RDBMS fllve ds chp leidz (Connection) LFkkfir djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa bugsa ;wtj izkslslsl vfkok DykbaV izkslsl dgrs gsaa ^izkslsl Xykscy,fj;k* dks ^izksxzke Xykscy,fj;k* Hkh dgk tkrk gsa blesa,d ;wtj izkslsl vfkok lozj izkslsl ds fy, MkVk,oa fu;a=k.k lajpuk (Control Structures) gksrs gsaa MkVkcsl ds izr;sd ;wtj izkslsl ds fy,,d&,d PGA gksrk gsa fdlh Hkh MkVkcsl eas lozizfke fllve ds fy, vko';d Vscy fufezr fd, tkrs gsaa vkwjsdy esa bu VscYl dks fllve Vscy vfkok vkwjsdy MkVk fmd'kujh dgk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy eas tc fdlh MkVk esa ifjorzu (Change) fd;k tkrk gs] rks bl ifjorzu dks iw.kzr% fu;qdr (Commit) vfkok izfrykse (Reverse) djuk vfuok;z gsa fdlh ifjorzu dks jn~n djuk vkwjsdy esa Roll-back dgykrk gsa Roll-back segments os fllve vkwctsdv gas] tks okilh dh bl izfø;k esa lgk;d gksrs gsaa VªkUtsD'ku (Transaction) fofhkuu izfø;kvksa dk,d lewg gs] tks fdlh MkVkcsl vuqiz;ksx (Application) esa,d rdzlaxr (Logical) dk;z iw.kz djrk gsa izr;sd VªkUtsD'ku,d vfkok,d ls vf/d SQL dfkuksa (Statements) ls feydj cuk gksrk gsa MkVk dh v[k.mrk dks tkapus rfkk bls cuk, j[kus ds fy, fllve ds VscYl ij dqn fu;eksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bugsa fø;kfuor djus ds fy, Integrity Constraints dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy lajpuk dk voyksdu 47

48 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy MkVkcsl fvªxj PL/SQL esa fy[kk x;k,d dksm&cykwd gksrk gs] ftls fdlh Vscy ij fn, tkus okys Insert, Update,oa Delete dfkuksa dh tkap djus ds fy, ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy esa MkVk dks izkir djus] ns[kus] mls ifjofrzr djus] gvkus] u, VscYl dk fuekz.k djus] mudh lajpuk ifjofrzr djus vfkok mugsa fevkus br;kfn lhkh dk;ks± ds fy, fofhkuu ;wtlz dks muds nkf;ro (Responsibility) rfkk Lrj (Status) ds vuqlkj dqn fo'ks"k vf/dkj iznku fd, tkrs gsaa bugs izkf/dkj dgrs gsaa System Level Privileges,,sls fo'ks"kkf/dkj gsa] tks fdlh ;wtj ds fy, leiw.kz vkwjsdy fllve ij ykxw jgrs gsaa ;fn fdlh fof'k"v System Object (Table, view br;kfn) ds fy, ;wtj dks izkf/dkj iznku djuk gks] rks blds fy, Objects-Level Privileges dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Recovery Manager,d Off-Line lqfo/k gs] ftls Back-up rfkk Recovery ds dk;ks± esa MkVkcsl iz'kkld (Administrator) dh lgk;rk djus ds fy, cuk;k x;k gsa Image Copy Back-up }kjk,d MkVk iqkby dks fmld esa fdlh vu; LFkku ij vfkok fllve fdlh vu; fmld ij Copy fd;k tk ldrk gsa Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. lhkh izdkj ds MkVk, lwpukvksa br;kfn dks j[kus ds fy, vkwjsdy fllve fofhkuu izdkj dh iqkbyksa dk iz;ksx djrk gsa bu iqkbyksa dks Oracle files dgrs gsaa bugsa e'khu (Computer) dh gkmz&fmld Mªkbo ij j[kk tkrk gsa 2. DBWR (Database writer), vkwjsdy esa Backround (i`"bhkwfe) ij dk;z djusokyh,d izkslsl gsa ;g izkslsl SGA (System Global Area) esa ifjorzu fd, x, MkVkcsl dks MkVkcsl iqkby ij fy[kus dk dk;z djrh gsa ;g izkslsl dsoy mu Blocks dks gh i<+rh gs] ftuesa dksbz ifjorzu (tsls& u;k fjdkmz tksm+uk vfkok fevkuk br;kfn fd;k x;k gsa,sls ifjofrzr Blocks dks Dirty Blocks Hkh dgk tkrk gssa 3. Dispatchers,sls izkslsl gsa] tks SQL*Listener ds DykbaV izkslsl ls fuosnu (Request) ysrs gsa rfkk ml fjdoslv dks Shared Server Processes ij Hkstrs gsaa 4. SGA dks eq[;r% rhu Hkkxksa esa fohkkftr fd;k x;k gsa ;s Hkkx fueufyf[kr gsa % (a) Database Buffer Cache (b) Shared Pool Area (c) Redo Cache 5- Recovery Manager,d Off-Line lqfo/k gs] ftls Back-up rfkk Recovery ds dk;ks± esa MkVkcsl iz'kkld (Administrator) dh lgk;rk djus ds fy, cuk;k x;k gsa vh;kl (Exercise) 1. vkwjsdy esa iz;qdr fofhkuu files dh O;k[;k dhft,a 2. vkwjsdy Server dh fofhkuu fo'ks"krkvksa dh ppkz dhft,a 3. System Global Area (SGA) rfkk Program Global Area (PGA) dk o.kzu dhft,a 4. vkwjsdy ds System rfkk ;wtj Process dks le>kb;sa 5. vkwjsdy Memory ds fofhkuu Hkkxksa dks o.kzu dhft,a 6. vkwjsdy esa MkVk dh lqj{kk fdl izdkj dh tkrh gs\ 7. System Database Objects D;k gs\ 8. vkwjsdy Back-up rfkk Recovery esa iz;qdr fofhkuu fof/;ksa dk o.kzu dhft,a 9. vkwjsdy esa iz;qdr fofhkuu privileges dks le>kb;sa 10. laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k, % 48 (A) COMMIT & ROLLBACK (B) Data Integrity

49 4 SQL*PLUS dk ifjp; (Introduction to SQL*PLUS) SQL*PLUS dk ifjp; bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % SQL dk ifjp; SQL dh fo'ks"krk, SQL ds?kvd (Components) SQL*PLUS dk ifjp; SQL*PLUS dh fo'ks"krk, SQL*PLUS dk fø;kuo;u SQL*PLUS esa iz;qdr egroiw.kz dek.m~l vkwjsdy MkVk&Vkbi 4.1 ifjp; (Introduction) vkwjsdy,d fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esustesav fllve (RDBMS) gs] ftls MkVk ds lapj.k (Storage) vfhkxe (Access) ifjorzu (Updation) rfkk MkVk dks fevkus (Deletion) ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blds vfrfjdr vkwjsdy RDBMS esa dqn vu; fo'ks"krk, Hkh gksrh gsaa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % (a) MkVk lqj{kk (Data Security) MkVkcsl esa lafpr MkVk dh lqj{kk ds fy, vkwjsdy esa fofhkuu rduhdksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (b) csd&vi rfkk fjdojh (Back-up & Recovery) vkwjsdy esa leiw.kz MkVkcsl dks,d ls vf/d LFkkuksa ij izfrfyfi (Copy) djds j[kk tkrk gsa rkfd fllve esa fdlh Hkh izdkj dh foiqyrk (Failure) mriuu gksus ij MkVk dks iqu% izkir (Recover) fd;k tk ldsa (c) midj.k (Tools) vkwjsdy esa vuqiz;ksx fodkl rfkk mi;ksx ds fy, vusd fodkl midj.k (Development Tools) rfkk Query Processing midj.k gksrs gsa] ftudk iz;ksx izksxzke ds fuekz.k rfkk ;wtj dh Dosjh ds fø;kuo;u (Execution) esa fd;k tkrk gsa 49

50 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 50 fjys'kuy MkVkcsl ij dk;z djus ds fy, fjys'kuy ekwmy esa nks Hkk"kkvksa (Languages) dh lgk;rk yh tkrh gsa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % Relational Algebra 'Relational Algebra',d fueu&lrjh; (Low-level) vkwijsvj vfhkeq[k (operator oriented) Hkk"kk gsa bl Hkk"kk esa fdlh Dosjh dk fuekz.k djus ds fy, fofhkuu fjys'kuy vkwijsvjksa dks Algebric Notations ds }kjk la;ksftr fd;k tkrk gsa Relational Calculus 'Relational Calculus',d mpp&lrjh; (High-level)?kks"k.kkRed Hkk"kk gsa blesa fdlh Dosjh dk fuekz.k djrs le; ;g of.kzr fd;k tkrk gs fd blds }kjk fdl izdkj ds ifj.kke okafnr (Desired) gsaa Relational calculus ds,d laldj.k 'Structured Query Language (SQL)' dk iz;ksx RDBMS esa O;kid :i ls fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy RDBMS esa MkVkcsl ij dk;z djus ds fy, SQL*PLUS uked,d midj.k fodflr fd;k x;k gs] ftldh lgk;rk ls vkwjsdy esa SQL dfkuksa dks fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl Hkkx esa bu nksuksa ds fo"k; esa ppkz dh xbz gsa 4.2 SQL dk ifjp; (Introduction To SQL) SQL dk iwjk uke 'Structured Query Language' gsa ;g,d Hkk"kk (Language) gs] tks fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esustesav fllve (RDBMS) ij dk;z djus ds fy,,d buvjiqsl iznku djrh gsa RDBMS ij dk;z djus ds fy, 'International Business Machines (IBM)' uked deiuh }kjk 1970 ds n'kd esa,d Hkk"kk fodflr dh xbza bls 'Structured English QUEry Language (SEQUEL)' uke fn;k x;ka ckn esa bls 'Structured Query Language (SQL) dgk tkus yxka SQL dk fodkl dqn ekudksa (Standards) ds }kjk fu;af=kr fd;k tkrk gsa 1986 esa 'American National Standards Institute (ANSI)' }kjk SQL dks RDBMS dh ekud&hkk"kk (Standard Language) ds :i esa eku;rk iznku dh xbza 1987 esa 'International Standards Organization (ISO)' us Hkh ANSI ds ekudksa dks eku; fd;ka orzeku le; esa SQL,d lokzf/d izpfyr,oa mi;ksxh MkVkcsl Hkk"kk gsa SQL dh fo'ks"krk, (Features of SQL) SQL dh dqn izeq[k fo'ks"krk, fueufyf[kr gsa % (1) SQL eas iz;qdr vf/dka'k 'kcn vaxzsth (English) Hkk"kk ls gh fy, x, gsaa vr% bls lh[kuk vr;ar ljy gsa (2) blds }kjk RDBMS dk fuekz.k (Creation),oa j[k&j[kko (Maintenance) cgqr gh de le; esa dj ikuk lehko gks tkrk gsa (3) SQL dk izr;sd dfku,d fø;k (Verb) }kjk izkjehk gksrk gsa tsls& 'SELECT', 'INSERT', 'DELETE' br;kfna (4) izr;sd SQL dfku ds var esa semi-colon(;) fpug yxk;k tkrk gsa (5) SQL esa fofhkuu vkwctsdv~l ds lkfk vkbmsafviqk;lz (identifiers) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vkbmsafviqk;lz dk uke vf/dre 30 o.kks± dk gks ldrk gs rfkk blesa igyk o.kz,d v{kj (alphabet (A-Z, a-z)) gksuk vfuok;z gsa (6) SQL esa dqn iwoz&ifjhkkf"kr (Pre-Defined) 'kcnksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] ftudk,d fof'k"v vfkz gksrk gsa bugsa vkjf{kr 'kcn (Reserved Words) dgk tkrk gsa mnkgj.k& INTEGER, DEFAULT, DISTINCT br;kfna ;fn bu 'kcnksa dks Identifiers ds :i esa iz;ksx djuk gks] rks bugsa Double Quotes (" ") ds chp fy[kuk vko';d gsa

51 (7) Characters rfkk MkVk Literals dks Single Quotes (' ') ds chp fy[kk tkuk pkfg,a (8) vadksa (Numbers) dks lkeku; i¼fr tsls& 15, 13.37, 0.092, br;kfn esa vfkok oskkfud (Scientific) i¼fr tsls& 2E5 ds :i esa fy[kk tk ldrk gsa ;gk 2E5 dk vfkz gsa (9) SQL esa fofhkuu fpugksa (Symbols) dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tkrk gsa bugsa SQL MsfyfeVlZ (delimiters) dgrs gsaa buesa ls dqn fueufyf[kr gsa % +,, *, /, : =, =, <, >, <=, >=,!=, ;, /*...*/, -- br;kfna (10) SQL esa desav~l (comments) nks izdkj ls fy[ks tk ldrs gsa % (i) Single Line Comments ;fn desav~l dks,d gh iafdr esa fy[kk tkuk gs] rks bugsa '--' fpug ls lkfk izkjehk fd;k tkrk gsa (ii) Multiple Line Comments ;fn desav~l fy[kus ds fy,,d ls vf/d iafdr;ksa dh vko';drk gs] rks bugsa /* rfkk */ ds chp fy[kk tkrk gsa SQL ds?kvd (Components of SQL) SQL esa fueufyf[kr pkj?kvd (Components) gksrs gsa % (a) Data Definition Language (DDL) (b) Data Manipulation Language (DML) (c) Data Control Language (DCL) (d) Data Query Language (DQL) bu lhkh dks ;gk la{ksi esa le>k;k x;k gs % (a) Data Definition Language (DDL) ;g SQL dek.m~l dk,d lewg (Set) gksrk gs] ftlds }kjk MkVkcsl dh lajpuk dk fuekz.k (Creation) mlesa ifjorzu (Modification) rfkk mls fevkuk (Deletion) br;kfn dk;z fd, tk ldrs gsaa bu dek.m~l dk iz;ksx lkeku;r% MkVkcsl iz'kkld] MkVkcsl fmtkbuj rfkk vuqiz;ksx Msoyij }kjk gh fd;k tkrk gsa DDL dfkuksa ds dqn mnkgj.k fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) CREATE MkVkcsl esa vkwctsdv~l dk fuekz.k djus ds fy,a (ii) ALTER MkVkcsl dh lajpuk esa ifjorzu djus ds fy,a (iii)drop MkVkcsl ls dksbz vkwctsdv fevkus ds fy,a (b) Data Manipulation Language (DML) SQL dh bu dek.m~l ds }kjk fdlh MkVkcsl ds MkVk dks ifjofrzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa dqn DML dfku fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) INSERT Vscy esa u;k MkVk tksm+us ds fy,a (ii) UPDATE Vscy esa INSERT fd, x, MkVk esa lq/kj@ifjorzu ds fy,a (iii)delete Vscy ds MkVk dks fevkus ds fy,a (c) Data Control Language (DCL) SQL ds bl Hkkx esa os dek.m~l gksrh gsa] ftuds }kjk MkVk rfkk MkVkcsl ds,dlsl dks fu;af=kr (Control) fd;k tkrk gsa DCL dfkuksa ds dqn mnkgj.k fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) COMMIT fd, x, dk;z dks lafpr (Save) djus ds fy,a (ii) ROLLBACK vafre COMMIT dfku ds ckn MkVkcsl esa fd, x, ifjorzuksa dks fujlr (Rollback) djus rfkk MkVkcsl dks iqu% iwoz flfkfr (Original State) esa ykus ds fy,a SQL*PLUS dk ifjp; 51

52 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 52 (d) Data Query Language (DQL) SQL ds bl Hkkx ds }kjk MkVkcsl ls MkVk dks Dosjh ds vk/ kj ij izkir fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl MkVk dks iznf'kzr djus ls iwoz bls fofhkuu izdkj ls O;ofLFkr (Arrange) Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa DQL es a fueufyf[kr dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs % (i) SELECT MkVkcsl ls MkVk dks izkir djus ds fy,a 4.3 SQL*PLUS dk ifjp; (Introduction to SQL*PLUS) SQL dh lgk;rk ls vkwjsdy RDBMS ij dk;z djus ds fy, vkwjsdy dkwikszjs'ku }kjk,d dek.m&ykbu midj.k (Command Line Tool) fodflr fd;k x;k gsa bldk uke 'SQL*PLUS' gsa SQL*PLUS esa fofhkuu dek.m~l miyc/ gsaa ftudh lgk;rk ls SQL dfkuksa dks vkwjsdy MkVkcsl ij fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa blds vfrfjdr MkVkcsl ls izkir vkmv&iqv dks fdlh fof'k"v izk:i (Format) esa O;ofLFkr (Arrange) djuk] dek.m~l dks lafpr (save) djuk] br;kfn dk;z Hkh SQL*PLUS }kjk fd, tk ldrs gsaa SQL*PLUS dh fo'ks"krk, (Features of SQL*PLUS) SQL*PLUS, olrqr% SQL dk gh iz/ku&leqpp; (Super-Set) gsa vr% SQL dh lhkh fo'ks"krk, blesa miyc/ gksrh gsaa buds vfrfjdr SQL*PLUS esa vu; fof'k"v xq.k Hkh ik, tkrs gsaa buesa ls dqn fueufyf[kr gsa % (1) SQL*PLUS esa,d vfkok vf/d clauses dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa buesa ls izr;sd DykWt,d Key-Word ds lkfk izkjehk gksrh gsa (2) SQL*PLUS esa,d dfku dks,d ls vf/d iafdr;ksa es fohkkftr djds fy[kk tk ldrk gsa (3) SQL*PLUS, Case-Sensitive Tool ugha gsa bldk vfkz ;g gs fd blesa o.kks± dks Upper Case (A-Z) vfkok Lower Case (a-z) fdlh esa Hkh fy[kk tk ldrk gsa (4) SQL*PLUS esa vu; iqkbyksa ls Hkh SQL buiqv izkir fd;k tk ldrk gsa (5) SQL dfkuksa dks ifjofrzr (Modify) djus ds fy, SQL*PLUS esa,d Line Editor (mnk- NOTEPAD) Hkh miyc/ gksrk gsa (6) SQL*PLUS ds }kjk vkwjsdy dh lsfvaxl dks Hkh fu;af=kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa (7) SQL*PLUS esa Dosjh ls izkir ifj.kkeksa (Results) dks fjiksvz ds :i esa Hkh fn'kkz;k tk ldrk gsa (8) bldh lgk;rk ls LFkkuh; (Local) vfkok nwjlfk (Remote) nksuksa izdkj ds MkVkcsl ij dk;z fd;k tk ldrk gsa SQL*PLUS dk fø;kuo;u (Running SQL*PLUS) SQL*PLUS, vkwjsdy dk,d midj.k gs] tks SQL Dosjh dks fø;kfuor djus ds fy,,d Graphical User Interface (GUI) iznku djrk gsa ;gk Windows rfkk UNIX vkwijsfvax fllve ij SQL*PLUS dks fø;kfuor djus dh izfø;k dks le>k;k x;k gsa Window ij SQL*PLUS dk fø;kuo;u (Running SQL*PLUS Under Windows) Windows vkwijsfvax fllve okys dei;wvj ij ;fn vkwjsdy dks bulvkwy fd;k tk pqdk gs] rks SQL*PLUS dks fueufyf[kr pj.kksa (Steps) ds }kjk fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gs % (1) SQL*PLUS dks izkjehk djus ds fy, Start Programs Oracle Application Development SQL PLUS ij fdyd djsaa

53 (2),slk djus ij SQL*PLUS tool izkjehk gksxk rfkk fp=k esa iznf'kzr log-on window fn[kkbz nsxh % SQL*PLUS dk ifjp; SQL*PLUS ls tqm+uk (3) Log-on Window dh 'User-Name' uked field esa viuk vkwjsdy User-Name Type djsaa mnkgj.k& SCOTT. (4) 'Password' field esa viuk vkwjsdy Password Type djsaa mnkgj.k& TIGER. (5) 'Host String' field esa vkwjsdy gkslv dk og Service Name type djsa] ftlds lkfk Connect gksuk gsa ;fn vkwjsdy dks LFkkuh; (Local) dei;wvj ij gh iz;ksx fd;k tk jgk gks] rks bl field dks fjdr (Blank) jgus nsaa (6) vc OK Button ij fdyd djsaa,slk djus ij Log-On izfø;k iw.kz gksxha ;fn vkius lgh User-Name rfkk Password fn;k gs] rks SQL*PLUS midj.k ds }kjk vkwjsdy MkVkcsl ds lkfk,d ls'ku LFkkfir gks tk,xk rfkk SQL*PLUS Prompt (SQL>) LØhu ij iznf'kzr gksxka bls fueufyf[kr fp=k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % vkwjsdy SQL*PLUS izkweiv (7) bl izkweiv ij SQL dek.m~l fø;kfuor djds MkVkcsl ij dk;z fd;k tk ldrk gsa (8) SQL*PLUS dks can djus ds fy, SQL izkweiv ij 'EXIT' fy[kdj 'ENTER' key nck, A 53

54 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy UNIX ij SQL*PLUS dks fø;kfuor djuk (Running SQL*PLUS Under UNIX) UNIX vkwijsfvax fllve ij fueufyf[kr pj.kksa (Steps) ds }kjk SQL*PLUS dks fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gs % (1) lozizfke vius UNIX User-Name rfkk Password }kjk UNIX fllve ij Log-On djsaa (2) SQL*PLUS dks fø;kfuor djus ds fy, UNIX Command Prompt (UNIX%) ij Sqlplus dek.m bl izdkj fø;kfuor djsa % Unix% Sqlplus (3) Carriage Return djus ij User-Name ds fy, izkweiv iznf'kzr gksxk % Enter User-name: bl izkweiv ij viuk vkwjsdy User-Name fy[ksaa ;g User-Name vkids UNIX Account Name ds leku (Same) vfkok fhkuu (Different) gks ldrk gsa (4) vc Password izkweiv ij vius vkwjsdy Account dk Password fy[ksa % Enter Password: ;g iklomz vkids UNIX Account iklomz ls fhkuu gksuk pkfg,a (5) ;fn lgh Username,oa Password fn;k x;k gs] rks,d ls'ku LFkkfir gks tk,xka vc ;gk SQL*PLUS dh lgk;rk ls fofhkuu SQL dfkuksa dks fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa UNIX ij SQL*PLUS dks fø;kfuor djus dh mijksdr izfø;k bl fp=k esa iznf'kzr dh xbz gs % unix% sqlplus Enter user-name: skphind Enter password: ********* SQL> To exit the SQL*Plus program (in any operating system), type EXIT and press Enter or carriage return: SQL> EXIT (6) ls'ku lekir djus rfkk SQL*PLUS can djus ds fy, SQL izkweiv ij 'EXIT' dek.m fy[kasaa SQL*PLUS dek.m~l (SQL*PLUS Commands) vkwjsdy MkVkcsl ij fofhkuu SQL dfku Hkstus rfkk mudk O;oLFkkiu djus ds fy, SQL*PLUS esa vusd dek.m~l miyc/ gksrh gasa buds }kjk ;wtj eq[;r% fueufyf[kr dk;z dj ldrk gs % (1) SQL dfkuksa dks fy[kuk] Edit djuk] lafpr (Store) djuk] izkir (Retrieve) djuk rfkk fø;kfuor (Run) djuka (2) fdlh Vscy ds dkwyel dh ifjhkk"kkvksa dh lwph (list) cukuka (3) Dosjh ds ifj.kkeksa ij x.kuk, (Calculations) djuk] mugsa lafpr djuk vfkok fjiksvz ds :i esa fizav (Print) djuka (4) fofhkuu SQL MkVkcsl ds chp MkVk dks,dlsl rfkk copy djuka fofhkuu SQL*PLUS dek.m~l rfkk muds dk;ks± (Functions) dh lwph fueufyf[kr gs % 54 / ciqj (Buffer) esa flfkr orzeku (Current) SQL dfku dks bl dek.m~l ds }kjk fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa (;g 'RUN' dek.m dh gh rjg dk;z djrh gsa)

55 ACCEPT bl dek.m ds }kjk ;wtj ls izkir fdlh eku dks,d osfj;scy esa j[kk tk ldrk gsa APPEND bl dek.m dk iz;ksx ciqj esa flfkr orzeku iafdr ds var esa dksbz VsDLV tksm+us ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa AUTOTRACE ;g dek.m SQL dfkuksa dh fø;kuo;u ;kstuk dks fpfugr (Trace) djus rfkk lkaf[;dh (Statistics) dks,df=kr djus dk dk;z djrh gsa BREAK SQL dfku ds izk:i dks lsv (set) djus ds fy,a CHANGE SQL dfku dh orzeku (Current) ykbu ij fy[ks VsDLV dks fdlh u, VsDLV }kjk ifjofrzr djus ds fy,a CLEAR ;g dek.m] ciqj dks Clear djrh gsa COLUMN fdlh Dosjh ls izkir Out-Put esa dkwye dk izn'kzu (Appearance) ifjofrzr djus ds fy, bldk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa COMPUTE SQL dfkuksa ls izkir iafdr;ksa ij x.kuk, (Calculations) djus ds fy,a CONNECT vkwjsdy MkVkcsl ls laca/ (Connection) LFkkfir djus ds fy,a COPY fdlh Vscy dk MkVk,d vu; MkVkcsl vfkok mlh (Same) MkVkcsl esa Copy djus ds fy,a DEL ciqj dh orzeku iafdr dks fevkus ds fy,a DESCRIBE ;g dek.m fdlh Vscy dh lajpuk] mlds LraHkksa ds uke] muds MkVk&Vkbi rfkk Vscy ls tqmh vu; fo'ks"kkrk, iznf'kzr djrh gsaa EDIT ciqj ds orzeku SQL dfku dks fdlh ckgjh (External) Editor (tsls& vi vfkok emacs) ds }kjk Edit (ifjofrzr) djus ds fy,a EXIT SQL*PLUS izksxzke dks can djus ds fy,a GET ;g dek.m,d SQL dfku dks ciqj esa load djrh gsa ijurq] mls fø;kfuor ugha djrha HELP SQL*PLUS ls lacaf/r lgk;rk (Help) izkir djus ds fy,a HOST vkwijsfvax fllve 'ksy (shell) dks Drop djus ds fy,a INPUT ciqj esa flfkr SQL dfku ij,d vfkok vf/d iafdr;k tksm+us ds fy,a LIST ciqj esa flfkr orzeku SQL dfku ns[kus ds fy,a QUIT SQL*PLUS izksxzke ls ckgj fudyus ds fy,a REMARK 'REMARK' Keyword ds }kjk fvii.kh (Comments) nsus ds fy,a RUN ciqj esa flfkr orzeku SQL dfku dks fø;kfuor djus ds fy,a SAVE orzeku SQL dfku dks fdlh Script iqkby esa lafpr djus ds fy,a SET fdlh osfj;scy esa,d u;k eku (Value) lsv (set) djus ds fy,a SHOW osfj;scy dh orzeku eku (Value) dks iznf'kzr djus ds fy,a SPOOL fdlh SQL dfku ls Out-Put dks iqkby ij Hkstus ds fy,a START bl dek.m ds }kjk fdlh fløiv iqkby ij flfkr SQL dfku dks Load djds mls fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa SQL*PLUS dk ifjp; Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- Data defination Language D;k gs\ 2- SQL D;k gs\ 3- Describe dek.m D;k dk;z djrk gs\ 55

56 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 56 TIMING SQL dfkuksa ds izn'kzu (Performance) dk fo'ys"k.k (Analysis) djus ds fy, bl dek.m }kjk dfkuksa ds fø;kfuor gksus dk le; fu/kzfjr (Set) fd;k tk ldrk gsa TITLE SQL dfkuksa dks fizav djrs le; izr;sd ist (Page) ds izkjehk esa,d VkbVy (Title) iznf'kzr djus ds fy,a UNDEFINE ;wtj }kjk ifjhkkf"kr (Define) fd, x, fdlh osfj;scy dks fevkus ds fy,a SQL*PLUS dek.m~l rfkk SQL dfkuksa ds chp varj dks le>uk vko';d gsa SQL*PLUS dek.m~l dsoy vkwjsdy ds SQL*PLUS midj.k ds fy, vkf/dkfjd (Proprietary) dek.m~l gsaa tcfd] SQL dfkuksa dk iz;ksx fdlh Hkh fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esustesav fllve (RDBMS) ij fd;k tk ldrk gsa 4.4 vkwjsdy MkVk&Vkbi (Oracle Data-Types) fdlh Hkh MkVkcsl es fofhkuu izdkj dh lwpuk, (Information) lafpr gksrh gsaa lwpuk dh izr;sd bdkbz (Unit) dks MkVk dgk tkrk gsa MkVkcsl esa lafpr ;g MkVk fofhkuu izdkj dk gks ldrk gsa tsls& o.kz (characters), la[;k, ] frffk;k (Date), Images br;kfna MkVk ds bu fofhkuu izdkjksa dks MkVk&Vkbi dgk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy RDBMS esa MkVk&Vkbi dk,d cm+k lewg (set) gksrk gsa budh lgk;rk ls fofhkuu izdkj dh osy;w k (values) ds lkfk n{krkiwozd dk;z fd;k tk ldrk gsa bu MkVk&Vkbi dk pquko (Selection) MkVkcsl ds izn'kzu (Performance) dks cgqr vf/d izhkkfor dj ldrk gsa vr% mi;qdr MkVk&Vkbi dk p;u vr;ar egroiw.kz gsa vkwjsdy esa miyc/ MkVk&Vkbi fueufyf[kr gsa % CHAR bl MkVk&Vkbi dk iz;ksx,d fuf'pr (fixed) yackbz dh flvªax (Strings) dks j[kus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % CHAR (Sixe); mijksdr dfku esa 'size' ds }kjk ;g Li"V fd;k tkrk gs S] fd cell esa vf/dre fdrus o.kz (characters) j[ks tk ldrs gsaa Size dh ;g yackbz 255 Characters rd gks ldrh gsa bldk vfkz ;g gs fd CHAR MkVk&Vkbi okys dkwye esa vf/dre 255 Characters j[ks tk ldrs gsaa ;fn dkwye esa buiqv fd, x, oklrfod (Actual) characters dh la[;k Size esa fufnz"v (Specified) yackbz ls de gs] rks bu cps gq, LFkkuksa dks Space character ds }kjk iw.kz dj fn;k tkrk gsa mnkgj.k& Name CHAR(60); mijksdr dfku esa 'Name' uked dkwye esa Size 60 fn;k x;k gsa ;fn blesa j[ks x, MkVk esa dsoy 20 characters gh gsa] rks 'ks"k 40 Characters dks vkwjsdy Lor% gh (Automatically) Blank Spaces }kjk iw.kz dj nsrk gsa gkykafd osy;w k (values) dks fudkyrs le; (Retrieval) ;s Spaces gvk fn, tkrs gsaa VARCHAR2 bl MkVk&Vkbi dk iz;ksx ifjorzuh; (Variable) yeckbz okyh fofhkuu Fields ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa blesa Letters, Numbers rfkk Puctuation Symbols gks ldrs gsaa bl MkVk&Vkbi ds lkfk Size Li"V djuk vko';d gsa Varchar2 dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % VARCHAR2(Size); VARCHAR2 es a vf/dre Size 4000 characters rd gks ldrk gsa CHAR rfkk VARCHAR2 esa eq[; varj ;g gs fd VARCHAR2 esa flvaªx dh yeckbz] fn, x, Size ls de gksus ij

57 Hkh Spaces ds }kjk Padding ugha dh tkrha Varchar2 esa lhkh izdkj ds characters (Alphabets, Numbers, Symbols) br;kfn dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa mnkgj.k& Name VARCHAR2(20); mijksdr mnkgj.k esa Name uked dkwye dk MkVk&Vkbi Varchar2 rfkk Size 20 gsa vfkkzr~ bl dkwye esa vfèkdre 20 Characters j[ks tk ldrs gsaa VARCHAR vkwjsdy esa CHAR rfkk VARCHAR2 ds vfrfjdr,d vu; character MkVk&Vkbi ik;k tkrk gsa bldk uke VARCHAR gsa ;g Hkh,d ifjorzuh; yackbz (Variable Length) okyk Vkbi gs] ftlesa vyx&vyx yeckbz dh strings dks j[kk tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % VARCHAR (Size); VARCHAR esa size vf/dre 255 characters rd gks ldrk gsa SQL*PLUS dk ifjp; mnkgj.k& NAME VARCHAR (20); lkeku;r% CHAR dh rqyuk esa VARCHAR dk iz;ksx djuk vf/d mi;ksxh gss D;ksafd blds }kjk vyx&vyx yeckbz okyh flvªax dks j[kk tk ldrk gsa ijurq] ;g è;ku j[kuk Hkh vko';d gs fd CHAR dh xfr (Speed) VARCHAR ls vf/d gksrh gsa NUMBER lhkh izdkj dh la[;kvksa] tsls& /ukred (Positive), ½.kkRed (Negative), 'kwu;] Fixed point rfkk Folating Point la[;kvksa] dks j[kus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa NUMBER uked MkVk&Vkbi dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl MkVk&Vkbi esa 1.0E-130 ls 9.9E125 ds chp dh dksbz Hkh la[;k j[kh tk ldrh gsa NUMBER Vkbi esa vf/dre 'kq¼rk (Precision) 38 vadksa rd gksrk gsa NUMBER MkVk&Vkbi dks fueufyf[kr rhu izdkj ls ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gs % NUMBER (P,S); mijksdr dfku esa 'P' la[;k dh 'kq¼rk (Precision) dks rfkk 'S', yackbz (Scale) dks of.kzr djrk gsa Precision (P) ds }kjk ;g crk;k tkrk gs fd dkwye esa j[kh xbz la[;k esa vf/ dre fdrus vad (Digits) gks ldrs gsaa scale(s) ds }kjk ;g fu/kzfjr fd;k tkrk gs fd n'keyo fpug (Decimal Point) ds ckn vf/dre fdrus vad gks ldrs gs aa NUMBER (P); mijksdr dfku ds }kjk,d fixed-point la[;k dks j[kk tk ldrk gs] ftldk Scale 'kwu; rfkk Precision 'P' gssa vfkkzr~ bl la[;k esa n'keyo fpug rfkk mlds ckn dksbz vad ugha gks axsa NUMBER; ;fn NUMBER ds lkfk Precision (P) vfkok Scale (S) ds fy, dksbz eku (Values) u fn, tk, ] rks ;g,d Foloating-Point la[;k gksxh] ftldk Precision 38 vadksa dk gksxka NUMBER MkVk&Vkbi ds fofhkuu izdkjksa dks fueufyf[kr Vscy esa le>k;k x;k gs % Actual Data Defined As Stored As NUMBER (6,2) NUMBER (6) NUMBER (6 1 2) NUMBER

58 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy DATE Date rfkk Time dks j[kus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa DATE uked MkVk&Vkbi dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa DATE rfkk Time dk izk:i 'DD-MON-YY HH:MM:SS' gksrk gsa blesa DD frffk (Date), MON,- ekg dk laf{kir uke rfkk YY- o"kz gsa blh izdkj HH-?kUVs (Hours), MM- feuv (Minutes) rfkk SS- lsdasm (Second) ds fy, gksrs gsaa mnkgj.k& ;fn dksbz frffk (Date) tsls 24 th APRIL 1984 dks vkwjsdy esa j[kuk gks] rks bldk fmiqkwyv izk:i 24-APR-84 gksxka (DATE) dh osy;w ds lkfk ;fn Vkbe (Time) ds fy, osy;w ugha nh xbz gs] rks fmiqkwyv TIME 00:00:00 (12:00 AM) gksrk gs DATE ds izk:i dks ifjofrzr djus ds fy, NLS_DATE_FORMAT isjkehvj dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa fllve dh orzeku (Current) DATE rfkk TIME dks izkir djus ds fy, 'SYSDATE' uked iqad'ku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa DATE eku dks tksm+k vfkok?kvk;k Hkh tk ldrk gsa mnkgj.k& SYSDATE + 7 fy[kus ij orzeku DATE ds,d lirkg (7 fnu) ckn okyh DATE izkir gksxha LONG ifjorzuh; (Variable) yeckbz okys cgqr cm+s VsDLV dks j[kus ds fy, LONG uked MkVk&Vkbi dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs SA bldk vf/dre lkbt 2GB rd gks ldrk gsa gs % LONG MkVk&Vkbi ds lkfk dk;z djrs le; fueufyf[kr ckrksa dk è;ku j[kuk vko';d (1),d Vscy esa LONG Vkbi dk dsoy,d gh dkwye gks ldrk gsa (2) LONG dkwye ij fdlh Index dks ykxw ugha fd;k tk ldrka (3) LONG Vkbi okys dkwye dks fdlh iqad'ku vfkok izkslhtj esa vkwx;wzesuv ds :i esa ugha Hkstk tk ldrka (4) dksbz iqad'ku] LONG Vkbi dh osy;w dks izr;kofrzr (Return) ugha dj ldrka (5) LONG dkwye dk iz;ksx WHERE, ORDER BY, GROUP BY rfkk CONNECT Clauses esa ugha fd;k tk ldrka BINARY TYPES fofhkuu izdkj ds ckbusjh MkVk tsls& Digital Sound vfkok Images dks lafpr djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa fueufyf[kr nks MkVk&Vkbi dks iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs % (1) RAW RAW MkVk&Vkbi ds }kjk dkwye esa vf/d 255 Bytes rd dk ckbusjh MkVk j[kk tk ldrk gsa (2) LONG RAW LONG RAW ds }kjk vf/dre 2GB rd ckbusjh MkVk dks j[kuk lehko gsa RAW rfkk LONG RAW Vkbi dks Index esa iz;ksx ugha fd;k tk ldrka,d Vscy esa bu izdkjksa dk dsoy,d gh dkwye gks ldrk gsa OBJECT TYPES cgqr cm+s MkVkcsl vkwctsdv ds lkfk dk;z djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa vkwctsdv izdkjksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;s izdkj fueufyf[kr gs % (1) BLOB (Binary Large Object) bl MkVk&Vkbi dk iz;skx cgqr cm+s ckbusjh vkwctsdv (tsls& Images rfkk Video) ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa budk vf/dre vkdkj 4GB rd gksrk gsa 58 (2) CLOB (Character Large Object) bl MkVk&Vkbi dk iz;ksx cgqr cm+s Character objects (tsls& Text Documents) dks j[kus esa fd;k tkrk gsa CLOB dk vf/ dre vkdkj Hkh 4GB rd gks ldrk gsa,d Vscy esa,d ls vf/d LOB Type ds dkwyel dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa

59 lkjka'k (Summary) vkwjsdy,d fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esustesav fllve (RDBMS) gs] ftls MkVk ds lapj.k (Storage) vfhkxe (Access) ifjorzu (Updation) rfkk MkVk dks fevkus (Deletion) ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 'Relational Algebra',d fueu&lrjh; (Low-level) vkwijsvj vfhkeq[k (operator oriented) Hkk"kk gsa bl Hkk"kk esa fdlh Dosjh dk fuekz.k djus ds fy, fofhkuu fjys'kuy vkwijsvjksa dks Algebric Notations ds }kjk la;ksftr fd;k tkrk gsa 'Relational Calculus',d mpp&lrjh; (High-level)?kks"k.kkRed Hkk"kk gsa blesa fdlh Dosjh dk fuekz.k djrs le; ;g of.kzr fd;k tkrk gs fd blds }kjk fdl izdkj ds ifj.kke okafnr (Desired) gsaa Relational calculus ds,d laldj.k 'Structured Query Language (SQL)' dk iz;ksx RDBMS esa O;kid :i ls fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy RDBMS esa MkVkcsl ij dk;z djus ds fy, SQL*PLUS uked,d midj.k fodflr fd;k x;k gs] ftldh lgk;rk ls vkwjsdy esa SQL dfkuksa dks fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa SQL dk iwjk uke 'Structured Query Language' gsa ;g,d Hkk"kk (Language) gs] tks fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esustesav fllve (RDBMS) ij dk;z djus ds fy,,d buvjiqsl iznku djrh gsa SQL dk fodkl dqn ekudksa (Standards) ds }kjk fu;af=kr fd;k tkrk gsa 1986 esa 'American National Standards Institute (ANSI)' }kjk SQL dks RDBMS dh ekud&hkk"kk (Standard Language) ds :i esa eku;rk iznku dh xbza 1987 esa 'International Standards Organization (ISO)' us Hkh ANSI ds ekudksa dks eku; fd;ka SQL dk izr;sd dfku,d fø;k (Verb) }kjk izkjehk gksrk gsa tsls& 'SELECT', 'INSERT', 'DELETE' br;kfna izr;sd SQL dfku ds var esa semi-colon(;) fpug yxk;k tkrk gsa SQL esa dqn iwoz&ifjhkkf"kr (Pre-Defined) 'kcnksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] ftudk,d fof'k"v vfkz gksrk gsa bugsa vkjf{kr 'kcn (Reserved Words) dgk tkrk gsa Data Definition Language SQL dek.m~l dk,d lewg (Set) gksrk gs] ftlds }kjk MkVkcsl dh lajpuk dk fuekz.k (Creation) mles a ifjorzu (Modification) rfkk mls fevkuk (Deletion) br;kfn dk;z fd, tk ldrs gs aa Data Manipulation Language }kjk fdlh MkVkcsl ds MkVk dks ifjofrzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa Data Control Language esa os dek.m~l gksrh gsa] ftuds }kjk MkVk rfkk MkVkcsl ds,dlsl dks fu;af=kr (Control) fd;k tkrk gsa Data Query Language }kjk MkVkcsl ls MkVk dks Dosjh ds vk/kj ij izkir fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl MkVk dks iznf'kzr djus ls iwoz bls fofhkuu izdkj ls O;ofLFkr (Arrange) Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa SQL dh lgk;rk ls vkwjsdy RDBMS ij dk;z djus ds fy, vkwjsdy dkwikszjs'ku }kjk,d dek.m&ykbu midj.k (Command Line Tool) fodflr fd;k x;k gsa bldk uke 'SQL*PLUS' gsa SQL*PLUS esa,d vfkok vf/d clauses dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa buesa ls izr;sd DykWt,d Key-Word ds lkfk izkjehk gksrh gsa SQL*PLUS, Case-Sensitive Tool ugha gsa SQL dfkuksa dks ifjofrzr (Modify) djus ds fy, SQL*PLUS es a,d Line Editor (mnk- NOTEPAD) Hkh miyc/ gksrk gsa SQL*PLUS dk ifjp; 59

60 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 60 vkwjsdy MkVkcsl ij fofhkuu SQL dfku Hkstus rfkk mudk O;oLFkkiu djus ds fy, SQL*PLUS esa vusd dek.m~l miyc/ gksrh gasa SQL*PLUS dek.m~l dsoy vkwjsdy ds SQL*PLUS midj.k ds fy, vkf/dkfjd (Proprietary) dek.m~l gsaa tcfd] SQL dfkuksa dk iz;ksx fdlh Hkh fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esustesav fllve (RDBMS) ij fd;k tk ldrk gsa fdlh Hkh MkVkcsl es fofhkuu izdkj dh lwpuk, (Information) lafpr gksrh gsaa lwpuk dh izr;sd bdkbz (Unit) dks MkVk dgk tkrk gsa MkVkcsl esa lafpr ;g MkVk fofhkuu izdkj dk gks ldrk gsa tsls& o.kz (characters), la[;k, ] frffk;k (Date), Images br;kfna MkVk ds bu fofhkuu izdkjksa dks MkVk&Vkbi dgk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy RDBMS esa MkVk&Vkbi dk,d cm+k lewg (set) gksrk gsa budh lgk;rk ls fofhkuu izdkj dh osy;w k (values) ds lkfk n{krkiwozd dk;z fd;k tk ldrk gsa bu MkVk&Vkbi dk pquko (Selection) MkVkcsl ds izn'kzu (Performance) dks cgqr vf/d izhkkfor dj ldrk gsa vr% mi;qdr MkVk&Vkbi dk p;u vr;ar egroiw.kz gsa Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. ;g SQL dek.m~l dk,d lewg (Set) gksrk gs] ftlds }kjk MkVkcsl dh lajpuk dk fuekz.k (Creation) mlesa ifjorzu (Modification) rfkk mls fevkuk (Deletion) br;kfn dk;z fd, tk ldrs gsaa bu dek.m~l dk iz;ksx lkeku;r% MkVkcsl iz'kkld] MkVkcsl fmtkbuj rfkk vuqiz;ksx Msoyij }kjk gh fd;k tkrk gsa 2. SQL ds bl Hkkx ds }kjk MkVkcsl ls MkVk dks Dosjh ds vk/kj ij izkir fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl MkVk dks iznf'kzr djus ls iwoz bls fofhkuu izdkj ls O;ofLFkr (Arrange) Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa DQL esa fueufyf[kr dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs % (i) SELECT MkVkcsl ls MkVk dks izkir djus ds fy,a 3. DESCRIBE ;g dek.m fdlh Vscy dh lajpuk] mlds LraHkksa ds uke] muds MkVk&Vkbi rfkk Vscy ls tqmh vu; fo'ks"kkrk, iznf'kzr djrh gsaa vh;kl (Exercise) 1. SQL D;k gs\ bldh izeq[k fo'ks"krkvksa dk o.kzu dhft;sa 2. SQL ds fofhkuu?kvd dksu ls gsa\ 3. SQL*PLUS D;k gs\ bldh fo'ks"krkvksa dk o.kzu dhft;sa 4. Windows vkwijsfvax fllve ij SQL*PLUS dks fø;kfuor djus ds pj.k le>kb;sa 6. SQL*PLUS dek.m~l ds iz;ksx dh D;k vko';drk gs\ SQL*PLUS dek.m~l rfkk SQL dfkuksa esa D;k varj gs\ 7. fueufyf[kr dek.m~l dk iz;ksx Li"V dhft;s % (A) ACCEPT (B) COPY (C) DESCRIBE (D) EDIT (E) EXIT (F) HELP (G) RUN (H) SAVE (I) START (J) UNDEFINE 8. MkVk&Vkbi ls vki D;k le>rs gsa\ 9. 'CHAR rfkk VARCHAR2' ij laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;sa bu nksuksa MkVk&izdkjksa esa eq[; varj D;k gs\ 10. NUMBER MkVk&Vkbi ds fofhkuu izdkjksa ds,d mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>kb;sa 11. DATE MkVk&Vkbi dk iz;ksx,d mnkgj.k dh lgk;rk ls Li"V dhft;sa 12. laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;s % (A) LONG (B) BINARY TYPES (C) OBJECT TYPES

61 5 Vscy dk iz;ksx (Working with Tables) Vscy dk iz;ksx bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % Vscy dk ifjp; SQL esa Vscy dk iz;ksx Vscy esa lafpr MkVk dks ns[kuk Vscy MkVk dks fiqyvj djuk MkVk v ru djuk Vscy ls MkVk dks fevkuk Vscy dh lajpuk esa ifjorzu djuk Vscy dks gvkuk dqn vu; SQL dfku 5.1 Vscy dk ifjp; (Introduction to Tables) fdlh Hkh fjys'kuy MkVkcsl ds fy, Vscy (Table),d ewyhkwr lajpuk (Root Structure) gsa fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esustesuv fllve (RDBMS) esa MkVk dks Vscy ds }kjk O;ofLFkr (Arrange) djds j[kk tkrk gsa Vscy,d f}&vk;keh (Two-Dimensional) lajpuk gs] tks iafdr;ksa (Rows) rfkk LraHkksa (Columns) ls feydj curh gsa iafdr;k dks {ksfrt (Horizontal) rfkk LraHkksa dks yecor~ (Vertical) :i esa O;ofLFkr fd;k tkrk gsa Vscy dh lajpuk dks fueufyf[kr fp=k esa iznf'kzr fd;k x;k gs % Vscy dh lajpuk 61

62 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 62 MkVkcsl Vscy rkfdzd (Logical) lajpuk, gsa] ftuesa dksbz HkkSfrd (Physical) fof'k"vrk, fufgr ugha gksrha ;s rkfdzd Vscy fofhkuu izdkj ds gksrs gsa] ftuesa ls ^csl Vscy* (Base table ) eq[; (Primary) gsa fdlh MkVkkcsl esa csl Vscy os gksrs gsa] ftuesa leiw.kz MkVkk mlh,d Vscy dk Hkkx gks] vfkkzr~ Vscy dk dksbz Hkh MkVk fdlh vu; Vscy ls xzg.k (Derive) u fd;k x;k gksa izr;sd Vscy esa LraHkksa dk,d fuf'pr lewg (set) gksrk gsa izr;sd LraHk dks,d vf¼rh; (Unique) uke fn;k tkrk gs] ftlds }kjk LraHk dks,dlsl dj ldrs gsaa,d vf}rh; uke ds lkfk gh izr;sd LraHk (Column) ds fy,,d MkVk-Vkbi Hkh ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa Vscy dh izr;sd iafdr esa fdlh LraHk ds fy, dsoy mlh MkVk-Vkbi dh osy;w vfkok 'NULL' osy;w gh j[kh tk ldrh gsa izr;sd Vscy es a 'kwu; vfkok vf/d iafdr;k gksrh gs aa fdlh csl Vscy dh,d iafdr es a izr;sd LraHk ds fy, dksbz osy;w vfkok 'NULL' osy;w gks ldrh gsa Vscy es a iafdr;k dks fdlh fof'k"v Øe es a ifjhkkf"kr ugha fd;k tkrk] u gh mugs a mudh flfkfr (Position) ds vk/kj ij,dlsl fd;k tkrk gsa Vscy dh izr;sd iafdr dks mlds LraHkks a dh osy;w ds vk/kj ij gh igpkuk (Identify) rfkk,dlsl fd;k tkrk gsa fjys'kuy ekwmy esa VscYl, iafdr;ksa rfkk LraHkksa ds vksipkfjd (Formal) uke rfkk vu; izpfyr (Popular) uke fueufyf[kr Vscy esa n'kkz, x, gsa % Formal Name common Name Alternative Name Relation Table Entity Tuple Row Record Attribute Column Field RDBMS uke&i¼fr ;fn fdlh Vscy esa nksgjh iafdr;k gkas] rks fjys'kuy ekwmy esa mls csl Vscy ugha ekuk tkrka fjys'kuy ekwmy esa izr;sd csl Vscy esa,d vf}rh; ifjpk;d (Unique Identifier) gksuk vko';d gs] ftlds }kjk Vscy dh izr;sd iafdr dks vyx&vyx igpkuk tk ldsa bl Identifier dks 'PRIMARY KEY' dgk tkrk gsa fdlh Vscy ds fy, 'PRIMARY KEY',d LraHk vfkok,d ls vf/d LraHkksa dk,d lewg (set) gksrk gs] ftlds fy, izr;sd iafdr esa,d vf}rh; osy;w gksrh gsa 'PRIMARY KEY' LraHk esa dksbz 'NULL' osy;w Hkh ugha gks ldrha 5.2 SQL esa Vscy dk iz;ksx (Working With Tables in SQL) SQL esa Vscy dk iz;ksx O;kid :i ls fd;k tkrk gsa Vscyksa ds lkfk dk;z djus ds fy, vusd dek.m~l miyc/ gsa] ftudh lgk;rk ls Vscyksa dk fuekz.k] mudh lajpuk esa ifjorzu] Vscy esa MkVk tksm+uk] MkVk dks Vscy ls fevkuk vfkok leiw.kz Vscy dks MkVkcsl ls gvkuk br;kfn dk;z fd, tk ldrs gsaa bu lhkh dek.m~l dks bl Hkkx esa le>k;k x;k gsa MkVkcsl dk fuekz.k (Creating a Database) MkVk dks laxzghr (Store) djus ds fy, lozizfke,d MkVkcsl dk fuekz.k djuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;g dk;z 'CREATE DATABASE' uked dek.m ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % CREATE DATABASE <Database Name>; mnkgj.k& CREATE DATABASE STUDENTS_RECORD; Vscy dk fuekz.k (Creating a Table) fdlh Hkh fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esa dksbz MkVk lafpr (Store) djus ds fy, Vscy dk gksuk vko';d gsa ;wtj viuh vko';drk ds vuqlkj Vscy dk uke] mldh fo'ks"krk, (Attributes) br;kfn dks ifjhkkf"kr dj ldrk gsa Vscy dk fuekz.k djus ds fy, 'CREATE TABLE' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs %

63 CREATE TABLE <Table Name> <Column_Name1> Data_Type (Size), <Column_Name2> Data_Type (Size),..., <Column Name N> Data_type(size)); Vscy dks fufezr djrs le; fueufyf[kr fu;eksa (Rules) dk è;ku j[kuk vko';d gs % (1) uke vf/dre 30 o.kksza (characters) dk gks ldrk gsa (2) uke esa v{kjksa (A-Z, a-z) rfkk vadksa (0-9) dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa (3) uke dk izfke o.kz,d v{kj (Alphabet) gksuk pkfg,a Vscy dk iz;ksx (4) uke ;fn,d ls vf/d 'kcnksa ls feydj cuk gks] rks bugsa tksm+us ds fy, UNDERSCORE ('_') dk iz;ksx djuk pkfg,a mnkgj.k % STUDENTS_RECORD TIME_TABLE (5) fo'ks"k fpugksa (Symbols) tsls& $ rfkk # dk iz;ksx ^dsoy* vkwjsdy esa gh Allowed gksrk gsa (6) SQL ds vkjf{kr 'kcnksa dks uke ds :i esa iz;ksx ugha fd;k tk ldrka mnkgj.k& Create, Select, Delete br;kfna fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa 'STUDENTS' uked,d Vscy fufezr (Create) fd;k tk jgk gs] ftlesa 'ROLL-NO', 'NAME' rfkk 'MARKS' uked rhu LraHk gsa % Vscy dks fufezr djrs le; Vscy uke ds lkfk&lkfk blds izr;sd LraHk dk uke] MkVk-Vkbi rfkk vkdkj ifjhkkf"kr djuk vko';d gksrk gsa Vscy dh lajpuk dk o.kzu djuk (Describing the Structure of a Table) fdlh Hkh Vscy dh lajpuk (Structure) ls lacaf/r tkudkjh iznf'kzr djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'DESCRIBE' uked dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % ;g dek.m, Vscy ds lhkh LraHkksa dk uke] mudk MkVk-Vkbi rfkk Vscy ls lacaf/r vu; fo'ks"krk, (Attributes) iznf'kzr djrh gsa ;g dk;z 'DESC' }kjk Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa mnkgj.k % DESC STUDENTS; mijksdr dfku }kjk Hkh ogh vkmviqv izkir gksxka 63

64 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy Vscy esa MkVk izfo"v djuk (Inserting Data Into Tables) 'CREATE TABLE' dek.m ds }kjk Vscy dk fuekz.k gks tkus ij bl Vscy esa MkVk j[kk tk ldrk gsa ;g dk;z 'INSERT' dek.m }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % INSERT INTO <Table_Name> VALUES (<Expression 1>, <Expression 2> <Expression 3>,...,<Expression N>); Vscy esa izr;sd iafdr izfo"v (Insert) djrs le; ;g dek.m fueufyf[kr dk;z djrh gs % (i) Vscy esa,d ubz iafdr dk fuekz.k djuka (ii) 'INSERT' dfku }kjk iznku dh xbz osy;w k (Values) dks Vscy ds LraHk esa tksm+uka 'INSERT INTO' dfku esa fy[kh xbz osy;w k mlh Øe esa Vscy ds LraHkksa esa Hksth tkrh gsaa vfkkzr~ igyh osy;w Vscy ds igys LraHk esa] nwljh osy;w nwljs LraHk esa br;kfna bldk vfkz ;g gs fd Vscy ds LraHk rfkk osy;w k ds chp,d&ls&,d (One-to-One) fjys'kuf'ki gksrh gsa bu lhkh osy;w k dks single quotes ('...') ds chp fy[kk tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % mijksdr 'INSERT INTO' dfku ds }kjk 'Students' uked Vscy esa ROLL-NO, NAME rfkk MARKS bu rhu LraHk ds fy, Øe'k% '111', 'SUMANT' rfkk '92.39' osy;w k nh xbz gsa Vscy esa osy;w k izfo"v djrs le; LraHkksa ds Øe dk è;ku j[kuk egroiw.kz gksrk gsa vu;fkk] vkwjsdy batu ds fy, ;g Li"V ugha gks ikrk gs fd fdl LraHk esa dksu&lh osy;w j[kuk gsa ifj.kkelo:i MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Integrity) izhkkfor gks ldrh gsa 'INSERT INTO' dfku ds }kjk ;fn Vscy ds dsoy dqn fof'k"v LraHkksa esa gh osy;w j[kh tk jgh gs] rks bl flfkfr esa <table_name> ds lkfk mu LraHkksa dk uke fy[kuk Hkh vko';d gksrk gs] ftuesa osy;w j[kuk gsa blds fy, 'INSERT INTO' dfku dks fueufyf[kr izdkj ls fy[kk tkrk gs % INSERT INTO <Table Name> (<Column Name 1>, <Column_Name_2>, <Column_Name_N>...) VALUES (<Expression 1>, <Expression 2>,...<Expression N>); 64 bl izdkj fy[kus ij osy;w Øe'k% dsoy mu LraHkksa esa assign gksaxh] ftuds uke <Table_Name> ds lkfk fn, x, gsaa vu; lhkh LraHkksa fjdr gh jgsaxsa

65 mnkgj.k % Vscy dk iz;ksx mijksdr mnkgj.k esa 'INSERT INTO' dfku ds lkfk STUDENTS uked Vscy ds nks LraHkksa] ROLL_NO rfkk MARKS dks fy[kk fd;k x;k gsa vr% bl dfku ds lkfk dsoy nks gh osy;w nh tk,axh] ftuesa ls izfke osy;w] ROLL_NO ds fy, rfkk f}rh; osy;w, MARKS LraHk ds fy;s gksxha Vscy dh,d ls vf/d iafdr;ksa esa osy;w j[krs le; izr;sd iafdr ds fy,,d INSERT dfku fy[kus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa ;fn iafdr dh la[;k cgqr vf/d gs] rks bl dk;z dks ljy cukus ds fy, 'INSERT INTO' dfku dks fueufyf[kr izdkj ls fy[kk tk ldrk gs % INSERT INTO <Table Name> Values '&Column Name 1', '&Column_Name_2',...'&Column_Name_N'); mnkgj.k % INSERT INTO STUDENTS VALUES ('&ROLL_NO', '&NAME', '&MARKS'); mijksdr dfku fy[kdj Enter ( ) Key Press djus ij gesa 'STUDENTS' Vscy ds izr;sd LraHk ds fy, fueufyf[kr dfku fn[kkbz nsxk] ftlds }kjk LraHk ds fy, osy;w nh tk ldrh gs % Enter Value for roll_no : Enter Value for name : Enter Value for marks : blds ckn Enter ( ) Key nckus ij LØhu ij fueufyf[kr vkmviqv feysxk % vkmviqv % vc Vscy dh vxyh iafdr esa MkVk izfo"v djus ds fy, SQL izkweiv ij '/' fy[ksa % SQL> / vc ges a izr;sd LraHk ds fy, fueufyf[kr dfku izkir gksxk] ftlds }kjk Vscy es a osy;w j[kh tk ldrh gs % Enter Value for roll_no : 444 Enter Value for name : SWATI Enter Value for marks : vkmviqv % 1 Row Created. 65

66 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy bl izdkj dsoy,d ckj 'INSERT INTO' dfku fy[kdj Vscy dh iafdr;ksa ds fy, '/' dek.m ds }kjk osy;w nh tk ldrh gsa 5.4 Vscy esa lafpr MkVk dks ns[kuk (Viewing Data Stored in Tables) Vscy esa izfo"v fd, x, MkVk dks ns[kus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'SELECT' uked SQL dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl dfku ds }kjk Vscy ds MkVk dks fofhkuu izdkj ls ns[kk tk ldrk gsa ;fn fdlh Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ksa rfkk lhkh LraHkksa dk MkVk ns[kuk gks] rks blds fy, 'SELECT' dfku dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % SELECT * FROM <Table_Name>; vkwjsdy esa 'SELECT' dfku ds lkfk Meta-character '*' (Asterisk) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 'SELECT' dfku esa ;g o.kz (Character), Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ksa rfkk LkHkh LraHkksa dks lwfpr (Denote) djrk gsa mnkgj.k % 5.5 Vscy MkVk dks fiqyvj djuk (Filtering Table Data) ;fn Vscy ds leiw.kz MkVk dks ns[kus dh vko';drk u gks] rks SELECT dfku esa fofhkuu 'krks± (Conditions) ds vuqlkj MkVk dks fiqyvj Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g dk;z fueufyf[kr rhu izdkj ls fd;k tk ldrk gs % p;fur LraHkksa,oa lhkh iafdr;ksa dks ns[kuk (Viewing Selected Columns and All Rows) ;fn Vscy ds dqn fof'k"v LraHkksa dk MkVk gh ns[kuk gks] rks blds fy, 'SELECT' dfku dks bl izdkj fy[kk tkrk gs % mnkgj.k % SELECT <Column_Name_1>, <Column_Name_2>,...FROM <Table_Name>; 66

67 mijksdr dfku ds }kjk STUDENTS uked Vscy ls dsoy ROLL_NO rfkk MARKS uked LraHkksa dh lhkh iafdr;ksa dk MkVk fn[kkbz nsxka p;fur iafdr;ksa rfkk lhkh LraHkksa dks ns[kuk (Viewing Selected Rows and All Columns) ;fn Vscy ls fdlh fof'k"v 'krz (Condition) dks iw.kz djus okyh iafdr;ksa ds lhkh LraHkksa dk MkVk ns[kuk gks] rks blds fy, iafdr;ksa ij mg 'krz dk iz;ksx djuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;g dk;z SQL esa 'WHERE' uked Clause }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % Vscy dk iz;ksx SELECT * FROM <Table_Name> WHERE <Condition>; ;gk 'WHERE' ds lkfk og dumh'ku tkrh gs] ftlds vk/kj ij iafdr;ksa dks fiqyvj djuk gsa blds }kjk dsoy os iafdr;k gh fn[kkbz nsaxh] tks Condition dks iw.kz djrh gsaa Condition dks lnso gh <Column_Name> <Operator> <Value> ds :i esa fy[kk tkrk gsa 'WHERE' clause ds lkfk dumh'ku fy[kus ds fy, lhkh izdkj ds vkwijsvlz (Operators) dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa mnkgj.k % bl dfku ds }kjk STUDENTS uked Vscy ls dsoy os iafdr;k gh iznf'kzr gksxh] ftuds 'NAME' LraHk esa osy;w, 'SUMANT' gksa p;fur iafdr;ksa,oa p;fur LraHkksa dks ns[kuk (Viewing Selected Columns & Selected Rows) ;fn fdlh fof'k"v damh'ku (condition) dks iw.kz djus okyh iafdr;ksa ds fy, dsoy dqn fof'k"v LraHkksa dk MkVk gh iznf'kzr djuk gks] rks blds fy, 'SELECT' dfku ds lkfk Column Names rfkk 'WHERE' Clause nksuksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % SELECT <Column_Name_1>, <Column_Name_2>,...FROM <Table_Name> WHERE <Condition>; mnkgj.k % mijksdr 'SELECT' dfku ds }kjk 'STUDENTS' uked Vscy ls dsoy mu iafdr;ksa ds fy, 'NAME' LraHk dk MkVk iznf'kzr gksxk] ftu iafdr;ksa ds 'MARKS' LraHk dh osy;w 90 ls vf/d gsa 67

68 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 5.6 MkVk v ru djuk (Updating Data) fdlh Vscy ds LraHkksa esa j[ks MkVk dks ifjofrzr djus ds fy, 'UPDATE' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blds }kjk fueufyf[kr nks izdkj ls MkVk dks v ru (Update) fd;k tk ldrk gs % Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ksa dks v ru djuk (Updating All Rows) ;fn Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ksa esa osy;w dks ifjofrzr djds muds LFkku ij ubz osy;w j[kuk gks] rks blds fy, 'UPDATE' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gksrk gs % UPDATE <Table Name> SET <Column_Name_1> = <Expression_1>, <Column_Name_2> = <Expression_2>..., <Column_Name_N> = <Expression_N>; 'UPDATE' dek.m ds }kjk iafdr;ks a dks ifjofrzr djus ds fy, 'SET' uked Clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;g clause, LraHkks a dh lhkh osy;w dks Expression es a nh xbz osy;w ds }kjk ifjofrzr dj nsrh gsa mnkgj.k % mijksdr dfku ds }kjk 'CUSTOMER' uked Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ksa esa 'PIN' uked LraHk dh osy;w '481001' Set gks tk,xha fdlh damh'ku ds vk/kj ij iafdr;ksa dks v ru djuk (Updating rows based on a condition) ;fn fdlh fof'k"v damh'ku ds vk/kj ij Vscy dh iafdr;ksa dks vimsv (Update) djuk gks] rks blds fy, 'UPDATE' dek.m ds lkfk 'WHERE' Clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % UPDATE <Table_Name> SET <Column_Name> = Expression> WHERE <Conditioon> mnkgj.k % 68 mijksdr dfku esa 'UPDATE' dek.m ds lkfk 'WHERE' clause dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gsa Vscy dh ftu iafdr;ksa esa 'ROLL-NO' uked LraHk dh osy;w '222' gs] mijksdr 'UPDATE' dfku mu lhkh iafdr;ksa esa 'NAME' LraHk dh osy;w 'ASHOK' Set dj nsxka vu; lhkh iafdr;k vizhkkfor jgsaxha

69 5.7 Vscy ls MkVk dks fevkuk (Deleting Data From a Table) Vscy dk iz;ksx Vscy ls iafdr;ksa dks fevkus dk dk;z 'DELETE' dek.m }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bl dek.m dk iz;ksx fueufyf[kr nks izdkj ls fd;k tk ldrk gs % Vscy dh lhkh IafDr;ksa dks fevkuk (Deleting all Rows) ;fn fdlh Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ksa dks fevkuk gks] rks blds fy, 'DELETE' dek.m dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % mnkgj.k % DELETE FROM <Table Name>; mijksdr 'DELETE' dfku 'STUDENTS' uked Vscy ls lhkh iafdrs dks fevk nsxka 'DELETE' dfku fevkbz xbz iafdr;ksa dh la[;k Return Hkh djrk gsa fdlh damh'ku ds vk/kj ij IafDr;ksa dks fevkuk (Deleting Rows based on a Condition) ;fn fdlh fof'k"v 'krz (condition) dks iw.kz djus okyh iafdr;ksa dks gh Vscy ls fevkuk gks] rks blds fy, 'DELETE' dek.m ds lkfk 'WHERE' Clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % DELETE FROM <Table_Name> WHERE <Condition>; DELETE dfku dks bl izdkj fy[kus ij Vscy ls dsoy os iafdr;k gh fevkbz tkrh gsa] tks damh'ku dks iw.kz djrh gsaa mnkgj.k % mijksdr dfku ds }kjk 'STUDENTS' uked Vscy ls dsoy os iafdr;k gh fevsaxh] ftuds ROLL_NO uked LraHk esa osy;w '222' gksa 69

70 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 5.8 Vscy dh lajpuk esa ifjorzu djuk (Modifying the Structure of a Table) fdlh Vscy dh lajpuk (Structure) esa ifjorzu djus ds fy, 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl dek.m ds }kjk fueufyf[kr dk;z fd;s tk ldrs gsa % (i) Vscy esa u, dkwye dks tksm+uka (ii) Vscy ls fdlh dkwye dks gvkuka (iii) fdlh LraHk ds MkVk-Vkbi dks ifjofrzr djuka bu lhkh dk;ks± ds fy, 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m ds fluvsdl,oa mnkgj.k ;gk le>k, x, gsa % Vscy esa u, dkwye tksm+uk (Adding New Column) fdlh Vscy esa,d u;k LraHk tksm+us ds fy, iz;qdr 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % ALTER TABLE <Table_Name> ADD (<New_Column_Name> <data_type> (size), <New_Column Name> <data_type> (<size>)...); mnkgj.k % dkwye dks gvkuk (Dropping a Column) Vscy ls dksbz LraHk gvkus ds fy, 'ALTER TABLE' ds lkfk 'DROP' Key-Word dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % mnkgj.k % ALTER TABLE <Table_Name> DROP COLUMN <Column_Name>; miflfkr LraHkksa esa ifjorzu djuk (Modifying Existing Columns) 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m ds }kjk Vscy ds fdlh LraHk dk MkVk-Vkbi ifjofrzr Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % ALTER TABLE <Table Name> MODIFY (<Column Name> <New Data-Type> (<new size>));

71 mnkgj.k % Vscy dk iz;ksx 'ALTER TABLE' ij fuczu/ (Restrictions on ALTER TABLE) 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m ds }kjk fueufyf[kr dk;z ugha fd, tk ldrs % (i) Vscy dk uke ifjofrzr djuka (ii) fdlh LraHk dk uke ifjofrzr djuka (iii) ;fn fdlh LraHk esa MkVk gks] rks ml flfkfr esa LraHk dk vkdkj (size) de djuka 5.9 Vscy dks gvkuk (Destroying Table) 'DELETE' dek.m dk iz;ksx Vscy ds MkVk dks fevkus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa ijurq bl dek.m ds }kjk Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ksa dks fevk nsus ij Hkh eseksjh (memory) esa og Vscy cuk jgrk gsa ;fn Vscy dh vko';drk u gks] rfkk bls eseksjh ls iw.kzr% gvkuk gks] rks blds fy, 'DROP' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % mnkgj.k % DROP TABLE <Table Name>; 5.10 dqn vu; SQL dfku (Additional SQL Statements) vhkh rd geus SQL ds os dfku ns[ks gsa] ftuds }kjk lkeku; dk;z tsls& Vscy dk fuekz.k] Vscy esa MkVk j[kuk MkVk dks ns[kuk] Vscy dk MkVk fevkuk] eseksjh ls Vscy dks gvkuk rfkk Vscy dh lajpuk esa ifjorzu djuk] br;kfn fd;s tk ldrs gsaa buds vfrfjdr SQL esa dqn vu; dfkuksa dk iz;ksx Hkh fof'k"v ifjflfkfr;ksa (Conditons) ds vuqlkj fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj dh dqn flfkfr;ksa rfkk muls lacaf/r SQL dfkuksa dh ppkz bl Hkkx esa dh xbz gsa nksgjs fjdkwmz gvkuk (Eliminating Duplicate Records) fdlh Vscy esa nksgjh ifadr;k Hkh gks ldrh gsaa 'SELECT' dfku ds }kjk Vscy ds MkVk dks iznf'kzr djus ij vkmviqv esa ;s nksgjs fjdkwmz Hkh fn[kkbz nsrs gsaa ;fn Vscy ls dsoy vf}rh; (Unique) iafdr;ksa dks gh iznf'kzr djuk gks] rks bl dk;z ds fy, 'SELECT' dfku ds lkfk 'DISTINCT' dh&omz Hkh fy[kk tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- fdlh Vscy dh lajpuk ls lecaf/r tkudkjh ds fy, dksu&lk dek.m ç;ksx djrs gsa\ 2- Select dek.m dk ç;ksx ge fdl fy, djrs gsa\ 71

72 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy SELECT DISTINCT <Column_Name 1>, <Column_Name 2>,... FROM <Table_Name>; 'SELECT DISTINCT' dfku,d Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ksa dks scan djrk gs rfkk ;fn iafdr;ksa ds izr;sd LraHk esa leku MkVk gks] rks vkmviqv ls bu nksgjh iafdr;ksa dks gvk nsrk gsa mnkgj.k % mijksdr dfku ds }kjk 'STUDENTS' uked Vscy ds 'MARKS' LraHk ls dsoy vf}rh; osy;w iznf'kzr gksaxha 'DISTINCT' Clause dk iz;ksx Vscy ds lhkh LraHkksa ls vf}rh; osy;w dks ns[kus ds fy, Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, 'DISTINCT' dh&omz dks SELECT dfku ds lkfk fueufyf[kr izdkj ls fy[kk tkrk gs % SELECT DISTINCT * FROM <Table Name>; mnkgj.k % MkVk dks,d Øe esa O;ofLFkr djuk (Sorting Data) vkwjsdy esa MkVk dks fdlh fof'k"v Øe esa Hkh iznf'kzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, 'SELECT' dfku ds lkfk 'ORDER BY' clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldh lgk;rk ls Vscy ds vkmviqv MkVk dks fdlh LraHk ds vk/kj ij vkjksgh (Ascending) vfkok vojksgh (Descending) Øe esa O;ofLFkr fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % SELECT * FROM <Table Name> ORDER BY <Column Name> [<sort order>]; 'ORDER BY' Clause, fn, x, LraHk ds vk/kj ij ifj.kke dks O;ofLFkr djrh gsa By default, Sorting vkjksgh Øe (Ascending Order) esa dh tkrh gsa vr% blds fy, dksbz <Sort Order> fy[kuk vko';d ugha gksrka ;fn ifj.kke dks vojksgh Øe (Descending order) esa O;ofLFkr djuk gks] rks <Sort Order> ds LFkku ij 'DESC' dh&omz (Key-Word) fy[kk tkrk gsa

73 mnkgj.k % Vscy dk iz;ksx mijksdr dfku ds }kjk STUDENTS Vscy dk leiw.kz MkVk 'Name' LraHk dh osy;w ds vk/kj ij O;ofLFkr gksdj iznf'kzr gksxka ;gk <Sort Order> ugha fn;k x;k gs] vr% MkVk dks By Default vkjksgh Øe esa iznf'kzr fd;k tk,xka ;fn mijksdr ifj.kke dks vojksgh (Descending) Øe esa O;ofLFkr djuk gks] rks 'ORDER BY' clause ds lkfk <sort order> ds fy, 'DESC' dh&omz fy[kuk vko';d gsa bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % fdlh miflfkr Vscy dh lgk;rk ls u;k Vscy fufezr djuk (Creating a Table From Existing Table) SQL esa igys ls cus gq, fdlh Vscy ds vk/kj ij dksbz u;k Vscy fufezr Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % CREATE TABLE <New Table_Name> (<Column_1>, <Column_2>,...) AS SELECT <Column_1>, <Column_2>,...FROM <Existing Table_Name>; 73

74 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % mijksdr mnkgj.k ds }kjk 'STUDENTS' uked Vscy ds vk/kj ij 'RESULT' uked,d u;k Vscy fufezr fd;k tk jgk gsa 'STUDENTS' Vscy ds 'MARKS' LraHk dk uke 'RESULT' Vscy esa 'PERCENT' gksxka ;fn 'STUDENTS' Vscy es a dksbz MkVk gs] rks og MkVk RESULT es a Hkh Copy gks tk,xka ;fn u, Vscy es a finys Vscy dk dksbz MkVk copy u djuk gks] vfkkzr~ ;fn dsoy Vscy dh lajpuk dk gh fuekz.k] djuk gks] rks bl flfkfr es a MkVk dks Copy gksus ls jksdus ds fy, 'SELECT' dfku ds lkfk 'WHERE' Clause ds }kjk dksbz,slh damh'ku fy[kuk vko';d gs] ftls iw.kz dj ikuk lehko u gksa mnkgj.k % mijksdr dfku ds }kjk 'STUDENTS' Vscy ds vk/kj ij 'RESULT' uked,d u;k Vscy fufezr (Create) gks tk,xk] ijurq 'STUDENTS' Vscy ls dksbz Hkh MkVk 'RESULT' Vscy esa Copy ugha gksxk] D;ksafd 'WHERE' clause esa nh xbz Condition dks iw.kz dj ikuk lehko ugha gsa ,d Vscy esa fdlh vu; Vscy dk MkVk izfo"v djuk (Inserting Data Into a Table From Another Table) 'INSERT INTO' dfku ds }kjk,d Vscy esa fdlh vu; Vscy dk MkVk Insert Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % INSERT INTO <Table_Name> SELECT <Column_Name_1>, <Column_Name_2>,...FROM <Table_Name>; mnkgj.k % 74

75 mijksdr dfku ds }kjk 'STUDENTS' Vscy ds lhkh LraHk dk MkVk 'RESULT' Vscy esa Copy gks tk,xka fdlh damh'ku ds vk/kj ij Hkh MkVk,d Vscy ls fdlh vu; Vscy esa izfo"v fd;k tk ldrk gsa blds fy, 'WHERE' Clause ds lkfk Condition fy[kh tkrh gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % INSERT INTO <Table_Name> SELECT <Column_1>, <Column_2>... Vscy dk iz;ksx mnkgj.k % FROM <Table_Name> WHERE <Condition>; mijksdr dfku ds }kjk 'STUDENTS' Vscy ls dsoy os gh iafdr;k, 'RESULT' Vscy esa Copy gksaxh] ftuesa 'MARKS' LraHk dh osy;w 90 ls vf/d gsa Vscy dk uke ifjofrzr djuk (Renaming Tables) igys ls fufezr (Existing) fdlh Vscy dk uke ifjofrzr djuk Hkh vkwjsdy esa lehko gsa bl dk;z ds fy, 'RENAME' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % mnkgj.k % RENAME <Table_Name> To <New Table_Name>; ;wtj }kjk fufezr VscYl dh lwph ns[kuk (Viewing list of Tables Created by a User) vkwjsdy esa fdlh ;wtj }kjk fufezr fd, x, lhkh Vscyksa dh lwph dks 'TAB' uked,d O;w (View) esa j[kk tkrk gsa bl lwph dks fueufyf[kr dfku ds }kjk ns[kk tk ldrk gs % SELECT * FROM TAB; mijksdr dfku ;wtj }kjk cukbz xbz lhkh Vscyksa dh lwph iznf'kzr djrk gsa bls fueu mnkgj.k esa n'kkz;k x;k gsa Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 3- dkwye dks dsls gvk;k tk ldrk gs\ 4-,d Vscy es a fdlh vu; Vscy vu; Vscy dk MkVk çfo dsls djrs gs a\ 75

76 a vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % LØhu dks fjdr djuk (Clearing the Screen) SQL * PLUS izksxzke ij dk;z djrs le; fofhkuu dek.m~l dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu dek.m~l ds }kjk vuds osy;w buiqv dh tkrh gsa rfkk vkmviqv Hkh izkir fd;k tkrk gsa ;s lhkh dek.m~l rfkk Input/Output osy;w SQL*PLUS LØhu ij fn[kkbz nsrh gsaa ;fn LØhu ls lelr vuko';d tkudkjh (Information) fevkdj LØhu dks lkiq (Clear) djuk gks] rks blds fy, SQL prompt ij fueufyf[kr dfku fy[kk tkrk gs % SQL>CLEAR SCR; blds ckn Enter ( ) key nckus ij SQL*PLUS izksxzke dh LØhu iw.kzr% fjdr gks tkrh gs] rfkk iqu% SQL>prompt fn[kkbz nsrk gsa lkjka'k (Summary) fdlh Hkh fjys'kuy MkVkcsl ds fy, Vscy (Table),d ewyhkwr lajpuk (Root Structure) gsa fjys'kuy MkVkcsl esustesuv fllve (RDBMS) esa MkVk dks Vscy ds }kjk O;ofLFkr (Arrange) djds j[kk tkrk gsa Vscy,d f}&vk;keh (Two-Dimensional) lajpuk gs] tks iafdr;ksa (Rows) rfkk LraHkksa (Columns) ls feydj curh gsa iafdr;k dks {ksfrt (Horizontal) rfkk LraHkksa dks yecor~ (Vertical) :i esa O;ofLFkr fd;k tkrk gsa MkVkcsl Vscy rkfdzd (Logical) lajpuk, gs a] ftues a dksbz HkkSfrd (Physical) fof'k"vrk, fufgr ugha gksrha ;s rkfdzd Vscy fofhkuu izdkj ds gksrs gs a] ftues a ls ^csl Vscy* (Base table ) eq[; (Primary) gsa fdlh MkVkkcsl es a csl Vscy os gksrs gs a] ftues a leiw.kz MkVkk mlh,d Vscy dk Hkkx gks] vfkkzr~ Vscy dk dksbz Hkh MkVk fdlh vu; Vscy ls xzg.k (Derive) u fd;k x;k gksa 76 ;fn fdlh Vscy esa nksgjh iafdr;k gkas] rks fjys'kuy ekwmy esa mls csl Vscy ugha ekuk tkrka fjys'kuy ekwmy esa izr;sd csl Vscy esa,d vf}rh; ifjpk;d (Unique Identifier) gksuk vko';d gs] ftlds }kjk Vscy dh izr;sd iafdr dks vyx&vyx igpkuk tk ldsa bl Identifier dks 'PRIMARY KEY' dgk tkrk gsa fdlh Vscy ds fy, 'PRIMARY KEY',d LraHk vfkok,d ls vf/d LraHkksa dk,d lewg (set) gksrk gs] ftlds fy, izr;sd iafdr esa,d vf}rh; osy;w gksrh gsa 'PRIMARY KEY' LraHk esa dksbz 'NULL' osy;w Hkh ugha gks ldrha

77 SQL esa Vscyksa ds lkfk dk;z djus ds fy, vusd dek.m~l miyc/ gs a] ftudh lgk;rk ls Vscyksa dk fuekz.k] mudh lajpuk esa ifjorzu] Vscy esa MkVk tksm+uk] MkVk dks Vscy ls fevkuk vfkok leiw.kz Vscy dks MkVkcsl ls gvkuk br;kfn dk;z fd, tk ldrs gsaa Vscy dk iz;ksx MkVk dks laxzghr (store) djus ds fy, lozizfke,d MkVkcsl dk fuekz.k djuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;g dk;z 'CREATE DATABASE' uked dek.m ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa Vscy dk fuekz.k djus ds fy, 'CREATE TABLE' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh Hkh Vscy dh lajpuk (Structure) ls lacaf/r tkudkjh iznf'kzr djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'DESCRIBE' uked dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 'CREATE TABLE' dek.m ds }kjk Vscy dk fuekz.k gks tkus ij bl Vscy esa MkVk j[kk tk ldrk gsa ;g dk;z 'INSERT' dek.m }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa Vscy esa osy;w k izfo"v djrs le; LraHkksa ds Øe dk è;ku j[kuk egroiw.kz gksrk gsa vu;fkk] vkwjsdy batu ds fy, ;g Li"V ugha gks ikrk gs fd fdl LraHk esa dksu&lh osy;w j[kuk gsa ifj.kkelo:i MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Integrity) izhkkfor gks ldrh gsa Vscy esa izfo"v fd, x, MkVk dks ns[kus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'SELECT' uked SQL dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy esa 'SELECT' dfku ds lkfk Meta-character '*' (Asterisk) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 'SELECT' dfku esa ;g o.kz (Character), Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ksa rfkk LkHkh LraHkksa dks lwfpr (Denote) djrk gsa ;fn Vscy ds leiw.kz MkVk dks ns[kus dh vko';drk u gks] rks SELECT dfku esa fofhkuu 'krks± (Conditions) ds vuqlkj MkVk dks fiqyvj Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;fn Vscy ls fdlh fof'k"v 'krz (Condition) dks iw.kz djus okyh iafdr;ksa ds lhkh LraHkksa dk MkVk ns[kuk gks] rks blds fy, iafdr;ksa ij mg 'krz dk iz;ksx djuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;g dk;z SQL esa 'WHERE' uked Clause }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ksa esa osy;w dks ifjofrzr djds muds LFkku ij ubz osy;w j[kuk gks] rks blds fy, 'UPDATE' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 'UPDATE' dek.m ds }kjk iafdr;ksa dks ifjofrzr djus ds fy, 'SET' uked Clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;g clause, LraHkksa dh lhkh osy;w dks Expression esa nh xbz osy;w ds }kjk ifjofrzr dj nsrh gsa Vscy ls iafdr;ksa dks fevkus dk dk;z 'DELETE' dek.m }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh Vscy dh lajpuk (Structure) esa ifjorzu djus ds fy, 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Vscy ls dksbz LraHk gvkus ds fy, 'ALTER TABLE' ds lkfk 'DROP' Key-Word dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 'DELETE' dek.m dk iz;ksx Vscy ds MkVk dks fevkus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa ijurq bl dek.m ds }kjk Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ksa dks fevk nsus ij Hkh eseksjh (memory) esa og Vscy 77

78 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy cuk jgrk gsa ;fn Vscy dh vko';drk u gks] rfkk bls eseksjh ls iw.kzr% gvkuk gks] rks blds fy, 'DROP' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn Vscy ls dsoy vf}rh; (Unique) iafdr;ksa dks gh iznf'kzr djuk gks] rks bl dk;z ds fy, 'SELECT' dfku ds lkfk 'DISTINCT' dh&omz Hkh fy[kk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy esa MkVk dks fdlh fof'k"v Øe esa Hkh iznf'kzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, 'SELECT' dfku ds lkfk 'ORDER BY' clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldh lgk;rk ls Vscy ds vkmviqv MkVk dks fdlh LraHk ds vk/kj ij vkjksgh (Ascending) vfkok vojksgh (Descending) Øe esa O;ofLFkr fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;fn u, Vscy esa finys Vscy dk dksbz MkVk copy u djuk gks] vfkkzr~ ;fn dsoy Vscy dh lajpuk dk gh fuekz.k] djuk gks] rks bl flfkfr esa MkVk dks Copy gksus ls jksdus ds fy, 'SELECT' dfku ds lkfk 'WHERE' Clause ds }kjk dksbz,slh damh'ku fy[kuk vko';d gs] ftls iw.kz dj ikuk lehko u gksa igys ls fufezr (Existing) fdlh Vscy dk uke ifjofrzr djuk Hkh vkwjsdy esa lehko gsa bl dk;z ds fy, 'RENAME' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy esa fdlh ;wtj }kjk fufezr fd, x, lhkh Vscyksa dh lwph dks 'TAB' uked,d O;w (View) esa j[kk tkrk gsa Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. fdlh Hkh Vscy dh lajpuk (Structure) ls lacaf/r tkudkjh iznf'kzr djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'DESCRIBE' uked dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % ;g dek.m, Vscy ds lhkh LraHkksa dk uke] mudk MkVk-Vkbi rfkk Vscy ls lacaf/r vu; fo'ks"krk, (Attributes) iznf'kzr djrh gsa 2. Vscy esa izfo"v fd, x, MkVk dks ns[kus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'SELECT' uked SQL dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl dfku ds }kjk Vscy ds MkVk dks fofhkuu izdkj ls ns[kk tk ldrk gsa ;fn fdlh Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ksa rfkk lhkh LraHkksa dk MkVk ns[kuk gks] rks blds fy, 'SELECT' dfku dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % SELECT * FROM <Table_Name>; 3. Vscy ls dksbz LraHk gvkus ds fy, 'ALTER TABLE' ds lkfk 'DROP' Key-Word dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % ALTER TABLE <Table_Name> DROP COLUMN <Column_Name>; 4. INSERT INTO' dfku ds }kjk,d Vscy esa fdlh vu; Vscy dk MkVk Insert Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % INSERT INTO <Table_Name> SELECT <Column_Name_1>, <Column_Name_2>,...FROM <Table_Name>; 78 vh;kl (Exercise) 1- RDBMS ds lanhkz esa Vscy dh vo/kj.kk dks Li"V dhft;sa 2- SQL esa Vscy ds fuekz.k dk fluvsdl le>kb;sa mfpr mnkgj.k Hkh fyf[k;sa

79 3- 'LIBRARY' uked,d Vscy dks ifjhkkf"kr dhft;s ftles a 'BOOK_NO', 'TITLE', 'AUTHOR' rfkk 'PRICE' uked pkj dkwye (Columns) gksaa buds fy;s mi;qdr MkVk izdkjksa dk p;u dk dkj.k le>kb;sa Vscy dk iz;ksx 4- fdlh Vscy dh lajpuk dks iznf'kzr djus ds fy, fdl dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs \ fluvsdl,oa mnkgj.k fyf[k,a 5- fdlh Vscy esa MkVk dks izfo"v djus ds fy, 'INSERT' dfku ds iz;ksx ds fofhkuu izdkjksa dk folrkj ls o.kzu dhft;sa 6- dsoy,d ckj 'INSERT' dfku fy[kdj Vscy esa,d ls vf/d iafdr;k izfo"v djus dh fof/ dks,d mnkgj.k dh lgk;rk ls Li"V dhft;sa 7- fueufyf[kr dk;ksza ds fy, 'SELECT' dfku ds iz;ksx dk fluvsdl,oa mnkgj.k fyf[k;s % (a) (b) (c) Vscy ds lhkh LraHkksa (Columns) rfkk iafdr;ksa (Rows) dk MkVk iznf'kzr djuka Vscy ds fdlh fof'k"v dkwye ds fy, lhkh iafdr;ksa dk MkVk iznf'kzr djuka fdlh damh'ku ds vk/kj ij,d iafdr ds lhkh LraHkksa dk MkVk iznf'kzr djuka (d) fdlh damh'ku ds vk/kj ij dsoy p;fur (Selected) LraHkksa,oa p;fur iafdr;ksa dk MkVk iznf'kzr djuka 8- fueufyf[kr dk;ksza ds fy;s 'UPDATE' dfku ds iz;ksx dks le>kb;s % (a) (b) Vscy ds fof'k"v dkwye dh lhkh iafdr;ksa dks vimsv djuka dsoy fof'k"v damh'ku dks iw.kz djus okyh iafdr;ksa dks vimsv djuka 9- 'DELETE' dfku dk fluvsdl fyf[k;sa fueufyf[kr dk;ksza ds fy, 'DELETE' dfku fdl izdkj fy[kk tk,xk% (a) (b) 'STUDENTS' uked Vscy ls os lhkh fjdkwmz fevkuk] ftuesa 'CLASS' uked dkwye dk eku (Value) 'BCA' gsa 'LOAN' uked Vscy ls lhkh fjdkmz fevkuka 10- 'ALTER TABLE' dh lgk;rk ls Vscy esa u, dkwye dks tksm+us dk fluvsdl fyf[k;sa 11- Vscy ds fdlh dkwye esa ifjorzu ds fy, 'ALTER TABLE' ds iz;ksx dk mnkgj.k nhft;sa 12- fdlh Vscy ls dkwye dks gvkus ds fy, 'ALTER TABLE' ds lkfk 'DROP' dk iz;ksx le>kb;sa 13- fdlh Vscy dks eseksjh ls fdl izdkj gvk;k tk ldrk gs \ DROP rfkk DELETE esa D;k varj gs \ 14- SQL es a 'DISTINCT' dk iz;ksx Li"V dhft;sa 'COURSES' uked Vscy ds 'NAME' dkwye dk MkVk ns[kus ds fy, 'DISTINCT' dk iz;ksx fdl izdkj fd;k tk ldrk gs \ 15- MkVk dks vkjksgh (Ascending) rfkk vojksgh (Descending) Øe esa iznf'kzr djus ds fy;s SELECT dfku esa iz;qdr 'ORDER BY' DykWt (Clause) dk fluvsdl fyf[k;sa 79

80 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 16- fdlh iwoz&fufezr Vscy ds vk/kj ij,d u, Vscy dk fuekz.k fdl izdkj fd;k tk ldrk gs\ 17-,d Vscy dk MkVk fdlh vu; Vscy esa izfo"v djus ds fy;s 'INSERT' dfku dk fluvsdl fyf[k;sa 18- fueufyf[kr dk;ksza ds fy, SQL dek.m~l ds mnkgj.k nhft;s % (a) (b) (c) Vscy dk uke ifjofrzr djuka ;wtj }kjk fufezr lhkh rkfydkvksa dh lwph iznf'kzr djuka LØhu dks fjdr djuka 80

81 6 MkVk fuczu/ (Data Constraints) MkVk fuczu/ bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % MkVk fuczu/ MkVk&fucZU/ksa dk iz;ksx MkVk fuczu/ksa ds izdkj 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m }kjk v[k.mrk fuczu/ ifjhkkf"kr djuk v[k.mrk fuczu/ dks gvkuk 'NULL' osy;w vo/kj.kk 'NOT NULL' fuczu/ fmiqkwyv osy;w vo/kj.kk 'USER CONSTRAINTS' Vscy 6.1 MkVk fuczu/ (Data Constraints) fdlh Hkh O;olk; vfkok fohkkx esa MkVk,d vr;ar egroiw.kz rro gksrk gsa lhkh izdkj ds dk;z MkVk ds vk/kj ij gh fd, tkrs gsaa ;fn,df=kr fd;k x;k MkVk viw.kz vfkok v'kq¼ gks] rks bl izdkj ds MkVk ds vk/kj ij fd, x, dk;ks± ds ifj.kke Hkh v'kq¼ gh izkir gksaxsa vr% fllve esa,df=kr rfkk lafpr djus ls iwoz MkVk dh iw.kzrk,oa 'kq¼rk dks tkapuk vko';d gksrk gsa izr;sd O;olk; vfkok fohkkx dh vko';drkvksa rfkk flfkfr;ksa ds vk/kj ij O;oLFkkidksa (Managers) }kjk bl dk;z ds fy, dqn fu;e ifjhkkf"kr fd, tkrs gsaa tks MkVk bu lhkh fu;eksa dk iw.kzr;k ikyu djrk gks] dsoy ml MkVk dks gh MkVkcsl ds Vscyksa esa j[kk tkrk gsa fdlh Hkh fllve esa MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Integrity) rfkk 'kq¼rk dh tkap djus ds fy, ml MkVk ij yxk, tkus okys bu fu;eksa dks MkVk fu;ked (Data Constraints) dgk tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % fdlh cs ad (Bank) esa ;g fu;e gks ldrk gs fd izr;sd vdkmuv esa U;wure 'ks"k&jkf'k (Balance Amount) Rs. 1000/- ls de u gksaa blh izdkj fdlh ijh{kk ds fy, fu;e gksrk gs fd,d ls vf/d ijh{kkffkz;ksa dk Roll Number,d gh (Same) u gksa 81

82 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy fdlh fohkkx ls lacaf/r MkVkcsl ds Vscy esa MkVk dks lafpr (Store) djus vfkok ml MkVk ds vk/ kj ij dksbz dk;z djus ls iwoz bu lhkh fu;eksa (Constraints) ds vuqlkj MkVk dh tk p dh tkrh gsa ;fn MkVk bu fu;eksa dk iw.kzr;k ikyu djrk gks] dsoy mlh flfkfr esa bl MkVk dks Vscy esa lafpr vfkok fdlh izfø;k (Process) esa iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;s lhkh fu;e iwjh rjg fdlh fof'k"v fohkkx vfkok fllve ij fuhkzj gksrs gsaa mnkgj.k& fdlh Bank-System esa iz;qdr fu;e] fdlh deiuh ds MkVk ij yxk, tkus okys fu;eksa ls iw.kzr% fhkuu gksaxsa 6.2 MkVk&fucZU/ dk iz;ksx (Applying Data Constraints) vkwjsdy esa fdlh MkVk fuczu/ dks SQL dh lgk;rk ls Vscy ds dkwye (columns) ij yxk;k tk ldrk gsa ;s Constraints fdlh MkVk dks lafpr (Store) djus ls igys MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Integrity) dh tkap djrs gsaa vkwjsdy esa MkVk fuczu/ksa ds nks Lrj (Levels) gksrs gsaa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % (i) dkwye&lrj fuczu/ (Column Level Constraints) (ii) Vscy&Lrj fuczu/ (Table Level Constraints),d ckj bu fuczu/ksa dks fdlh Vscy dh dkwye lajpuk (Structure) esa lfeefyr dj fy, tkus ij vkwjsdy batu ml Vscy esa izfo"v fd, tk jgs izr;sd MkVk dks bu constraints dh Conditions ds vk/kj ij tk prk gsa ;fn MkVk lhkh damh'kuksa dk ikyu djrk gks] rks gh mls Vscy esa lafpr fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn fdlh fjdkwmz dk dksbz,d dkwye Hkh constraint dh damh'ku dk myya?ku (Violation) djrk gks] rd leiw.kz fjdkwmz dks fujlr (Reject) dj fn;k tkrk gsa fdlh Vscy ij ;s fu;ked ykxw djus ds fy, 'CREATE TABLE' vfkok 'ALTER TABLE', nksuksa gh dek.m~l dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gs SA,d ckj ;s fuczu/ fdlh Vscy esa lfeefyr gks tkus ij izr;sd 'INSERT' vfkok 'UPDATE' dfku Lor% gh MkVk dks bu fuczu/ksa ds vk/kj ij tkaprk gsa 6.3 MkVk fuczu/ksa ds izdkj (Types of Data Constraints) vkwjsdy esa fdlh Vscy ds lkfk yxk, tkus okys fuczu/ fueufyf[kr nks izdkj ds gksrs gsaa I/O fuczu/ (Input/Output Constraints) Input/Output fuczu/ dks I/O fuczu/ Hkh dgk tkrk gsa ;s MkVk fu;ked fdlh Vscy esa j[ks tkus okys (Input) vfkok Vscy ls izkir fd, tkus okys (Out-put) ds fy;s fu;eksa dks fu/kzfjr djrs gsaa ;s Constraints fueufyf[kr izdkj ds gksrs gsa % (i) izkbejh&dh fuczu/ (Primary key Constraints) : 'PRIMARY KEY' Constraint fdlh Vscy eas,sls,d vfkok vf/d dkwyeksa dk lewg gksrk gs] ftlds }kjk Vscy dh izr;sd iafdr dks vf}rh; :i ls (Uniquely) vyx&vyx igpkuk tk ldsa izr;sd PRIMARY KEY dh fueufyf[kr nks fo'ks"krk, gksrh gsa % (1) 'PRIMARY KEY' dkwye esa fdlh Hkh iqhym dk eku (value) fjdr (Balank) vfkok NULL ugha j[kk tk ldrka (2) 'PRIMARY KEY' dkwye dk MkVk vf}rh; (Unique) gksuk pkfg,a 82 ;fn 'PRIMARY KEY' dks dsoy,d gh dkwye ij yxk;k x;k gs] rks bl PRIMARY KEY dks 'Simple key' dgk tkrk gsa Primary Key dk,d ek=k dk;z izr;sd iafdr dks vyx&vyx (Uniquely) igpkuuk gksrk gsa ;fn dsoy,d dkwye ds vk/kj ij fjdkwmz dks Uniquely igpku ikuk lehko u gks] rks bl flfkfr es a Primary Key dks,d ls vf/d dkwyeks a ij yxk;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj dh izkfkfed dq th (Primary Key) dks 'Composite Key' dgrs gs aa 'Primary key' dks 'Create Table' vfkok 'ALTER TABLE' nksuks a dek.mks a ds }kjk ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa

83 (a) ^izkbejh&dh* dh fo'ks"krk, (Features of Primary key) 'Primary Key' Constraint dh eq[; fo'ks"krk, fueufyf[kr gsa % Primary Key, fdlh Vscy dh izr;sd iafdr dks vyx&vyx igpkuus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkus okyk,d vfkok vf/d dkwyeksa dk lewg gksrk gsa Primary Key Columns esa dksbz nksgjh vfkok NULL osy;w ugha gks ldrha Primary Key dks LONG vfkok LONG RAW MkVk&Vkbi ds lkfk ugha yxk;k tk ldrka izr;sd Vscy ds lkfk dsoy,d gh PRIMARY KEY dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa,d Vscy es a Composite Primary Key ds lkfk vf/dre 16 dkwyeks a dks tksm+k tk ldrk gsa (b) dkwye&lrjh; ^izkbejh&dh* fuczu/ (Column Level Primary Key Constraint) ;fn PRIMARY KEY Constraint dks Vscy ds fdlh,d gh dkwye ij yxkuk gks] rks bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gksrk gs % <Column Name> <Data_type> (<size>) PRIMARY KEY mnkgj.k % MkVk fuczu/ mijksdr mnkgj.k esa 'STUDENTS' uked,d Vscy fufezr fd;k tk jgk gsa bl Vscy eas 'Roll- No' uked dkwye dks Primary Key?kksf"kr (Declare) fd;k x;k gsa vr% fdlh Hkh iafdr esa bl dkwye dh osy;w NULL vfkok nksgjh osy;w ugha gks ldrha,slk gksus ij vkwjsdy batu,d =kqfv lans'k iznf'kzr djsxk rfkk iafdr ds fy, fn, x, laiw.kz fjdkwmz dks fujlr dj nsxka (c) Vscy&Lrjh; izkbzejh&dh fuczu/ (Table Level PRIMARY KEY Constraint) ;fn Vscy ds dsoy,d gh dkwye ds vk/kj ij MkVk dks vf}rh; :i ls (Uniquely) igpku ikuk lehko u gks] rks bl flfkfr esa,d ls vf/d dkwyeksa ds lewg dks PRIMARY KEY ds :i esa ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa ;g dk;z djus ds fy, leiw.kz Vscy dks 'CREATE TABLE' dek.m ds }kjk ifjhkkf"kr djus ds ckn PRIMARY KEY ds lhkh dkwyeksa ds uke fy[ks tkrs gsaa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % mnkgj.k % PRIMARY KEY (<Column_Name_1>, <Column_Name_2>...); 83

84 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mijksdr mnkgj.k esa CUSTOMER_RECORD uked,d Vscy dk fuekz.k fd;k tk jgk gsa bl Vscy esa CUST_NO, NAME rfkk DOB uked rhu dkwyeksa ds lewg dks PRIMARY KEY Constraints ds :i esa ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tkuk gsa ;g dk;z lhkh dkwyeksa dks ifjhkkf"kr djus ds ckn 'PRIMARY KEY' ds lkfk bu dkwyeksa ds uke fy[kdj fd;k x;k gsa (ii) ^iqkwjsu&dh* fuczu/ (FORCING KEY Constraint) 'FOREIGN KEY' dk iz;ksx Vscyksa ds eè; laca/ (Relationship) dks n'kkzus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa dksbz iqkwjsu&dh,d,slk dkwye (vfkok dkwyeksa dk lewg) gksrk gs] ftlds fy, osy;w fdlh vu; Vscy dh ^izkbejh&dh* vfkok ^;wfud&dh* ls izkir (Derive) dh xbz gksaa og Vscy] ftlesa fdlh ^iqkwjsu&dh* dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gs] mls 'Foreign Table' vfkok 'Detail Table' dgk tkrk gsa blh izdkj og Vscy ftlesa bl 'Foreign Key' ls lacafèkr 'Primary Key' vfkok 'Unique Key' dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gs] ml table dks 'Primary Table' vfkok 'Master Table' dgrs gs aa fdlh 'PRIMARY KEY' dh gh rjg,d 'FOREIGN KEY' dks Hkkh 'CREATE TABLE' vfkok ALTER TABLE' dfku }kjk ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa 'Detail Table' esa Foreign Key dkwye dks ifjhkkf"kr djrs le; Master Table dk lanhkz (Reference) nsus ds fy, 'REFERENCES TableName. ColumnName' Clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (a) dkwye&lrjh; ^iqkwjsu&dh* fuczu/ (Column Level FOREING KEY Constraint) fdlh Detail Table esa,d dkwye ij FOREIGN KEY Constraint yxkus dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gksrk gs % <Column_Name> <Data_Type> (<size>) REFERENCES <Table_Name> [(<Column_Name>)] [ON DELETE CASCADE] mijksdr fluvsdl esa REFERENCES ds lkfk Master Table ds PRIMARY KEY dkwye uke fy[kuk osdfyid (Optional) gksrk gsa ;fn ;g uke u fy[kk tk,] rks vkwjsdy batu Lor% gh Detail Table ds FOREIGN KEY dkwye dks Master Table ds PRIMARY KEY dkwye ds lkfk tksm+ nsrk gsa blh izdkj 'ON DELETE CASCADE' fodyi dk iz;ksx Hkh vfuok;z ugha gsa ;fn bl fodyi dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gs] rks Master Table ls dksbz fjdkwmz fevkus ij lhkh lacaf/r Delail Tables esa FOREIGN KEY dh osy;w DELETE gks tkrh gsa mnkgj.k % 84 mijksdr mnkgj.k esa 'EMPLOYEE' uked,d Vscy cuk;k tk jgk gsa bl Vscy esa EMPLOYEE_NO uked dkwye dks PRIMARY KEY?kksf"kr fd;k x;k gsa lkfk gh BRANCH_NO uked dkwye dks FOREING KEY ds :i esa ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk jgk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, 'REFERENCES BRANCH_DETAILS' Clause dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gsa ;gk

85 'BRANCH_DETAILS' Vscy ds lkfk fdlh dkwye dk uke ugha crk;k x;k gsa vkwjsdy batu Lor% gh ml Vscy ds PRIMARY KEY okys dkwye dks 'EMPLOYEE' dkwye ds 'BRANCH_NO' dkwye ds lkfk tksm+ nsrk gsa bl izdkj ;g dkwye bl Vscy esa 'FOREING KEY' ds :i esa ifjhkkf"kr gks tk,xka (b) Vscy&Lrjh; ^iqkwjsu&dh* fuczu/ (Table Level Foreing Key Constraint) fdlh 'FOREING KEY' dks Table Level ij Hkh ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % FOREIGN KEY (<Column_Name> [<Column_Name>]...) REFERENCES <Table Name> [(<Column_Name>.<Column_Name...); ;g dfku fdlh Detail Table dh ifjhkk"kk ds var esa fy[kk tkrk gsa bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % MkVk fuczu/ mijksdr mnkgj.k esa DISEASE uked Vscy esa Patient_No uked dkwye dks FOREIGN KEY ds :i esa Vscy Lrj ij ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa lkfk gh] ;gk 'ON DELETE CASCADE' fodyi dk iz;ksx Hkh gqvk gsa bldk vfkz ;g gs fd Primary Table (Hospital) ls dksbz fjdkwmz fevkus ij og fjdkwmz Foreign Table (Disease) ls Lor% gh fev tk,xka blh izdkj 'FOREIGN KEY' ds lkfk 'ON DELETE SET NULL' fodyi dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa,slk djus ij Primary Table ls ;fn dksbz fjdkwmz fevk;k tkrk gs] rks Detail Table esa ml fjdkwmz ds fy, Foreign Key dkwye dh osy;w 'NULL' gks tkrh gsa ijurq] Foreign Table ls og fjdkwmz fevk;k ^ugha* tkrka (iii) ^;wfud&dh* fuczu/ (Unique Key Constraint) 'PRIMARY KEY' rfkk 'FOREIGN KEY' ds vfrfjdr fdlh Vscy ij 'UNIQUE KEY' uked,d vu; Constraint Hkh yxk;k tk ldrk gsa blds }kjk Vscy ds dkwyeksa esa,d ls vf/d NULL izfof"v;k (Entries) j[kh tk ldrh gs ijurq] buesa dksbz Duplicate Values j[kuk Lohdk;Z (Allowed) ugha gksrka UNIQUE KEY rfkk PRIMANRY KEY dh yxhkx lhkh fo'ks"krk, leku gksrh gsaa buesa varj dsoy ;gh gs fd 'PRIMANRY KEY' esa NULL osy;w ugha j[kh tk ldrh] tcfd] 'UNIQUE KEY' eas NULL osy;w Hkh gks ldrh gsa UNIQUE KEY dks Hkh dkwye Lrj rfkk Vscy Lrj nksuksa ij gh ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa (a) dkwye&lrjh; ^;wfud&dh* fuczu/ (Column Level Unique key Constraint) fdlh UNIQUE KEY dks dkwye Lrj (Column Level) ij ifjhkkf"kr djus dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gksrk gs % <Column_Name> <Data_Type> (<size>) UNIQUE 85

86 a vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % mijksdr mnkgj.k esa CUSTOMER uked Vscy ds lkfk CUSTOMER_NO uked dkwye ds fy, UNIQUE KEY dks dkwye Lrj ij ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa (b) Vscy&Lrjh; ^;wfud&dh* fuczu/ (Table Level Unique key Constraint) fdlh UNIQUE KEY dks Vscy Lrj ij ifjhkkf"kr djus dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % UNIQUE (<Column_Name_1>, <Column_Name_2>,...); mnkgj.k % O;olk; fu;e fuczu/ (Business Rule Constraints) izr;sd O;olk; vfkok fohkkx esa dqn fof'k"v fu;e ifjhkkf"kr fd, tkrs gsaa dk;z dks liqyrkiwozd leiuu djus ds fy, bu fu;eksa dk ikyu djuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;s fu;e izr;sd O;olk; vfkok dk;z&{ks=k ds vuqlkj fhkuu&fhkuu gks ldrs gsaa mnkgj.k % fdlh deiuh esa ;g fu;e gks ldrk gs fd fdlh Hkh dezpkjh dk osru (Salary) 2000/ - : ls de u gksa,slh flfkfr esa fdlh Vscy esa MkVk j[krs le; bl ckr dh tkap djuk vfuok;z gs fd 'Salary' dkwye ds fy, nh tk jgh osy;w 2000 vfkok mlls vf/d gksa ;fn 2000 ls de osy;w nh tk,] rks MkVkcsl batu bl leiw.kz fjdkwmz dks gh fujlr dj nsrk gsa vkwjsdy es a bl izdkj ds fofhkuu O;olkf;d fu;eks a dks Vscy ds dkwye ij yxk;k tk ldrk gsa bugs 'Business Rule Constraints' dgrs gs aa bugs a ykxw djus ds fy, vkwjsdy es a 'CHECK' Constraints dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu 'CHECK Constraints' dks 'CREATE TABLE' vfkok 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m~l dh lgk;rk ls dkwye Lrj rfkk Vscy Lrj nkuks a ij ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa 86 (i) ^psd* fuczu/ (CHECK Constraint) fofhkuu O;oLkkf;d fu;eksa (Business Rules) dks Vscy ds dkwyeksa ij ykxw djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'CHECK' Constraints dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu fuczu/ksa ds lkfk,d rkfdzd

87 fo/ku (Logical Expression) fy[kk tkrk gs] ftldk ifj.kke (Result) lnso gh lr; (True) vfkok vlr; (False) feyrk gsa MkVk fuczu/ (a) dkwye Lrjh; ^psd* fuczu/ (Column Level CHECK Constraint) fdlh CHECK Constraint dks dkwye Lrj ij ifjhkkf"kr djus dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % mnkgj.k % <Column_Name> <Datatype> (<size>) CHECK (<Logical Expression>) mijksdr mnkgj.k es a 'EMPLOYEE' uked Vscy dk fuekz.k djrs le; blds EMP_NO rfkk EMP_SAL uked dkwye ij CHECK Constraint dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa izfke CHECK Constraint 'CHECK (EMP_LIKE 'E%') ds }kjk ;g lqfuf'pr fd;k tk ldrk gs] fd Vscy ds 'EMP_NO uked dkwye es a nh tk jgh izr;sd osy;w dk izfke v{kj (character) 'E' gksa blh izdkj f}rh; CHECK constraint - 'CHECK (EMP_SAL> = 2000)' ds }kjk bl ckr dh tkap dh tk,xh fd EMP_SAL es a vkus okyh izr;sd osy;w 2000 vfkok mlls vf/d gksuh pkfg,a (b) Vscy&Lrjh; ^psd* fuczu/ (Table Level CHECK Constraint) fdlh CHECK constraint dks ;fn Vscy Lrj (Level) ij ifjhkkf"kr djuk gks] rks bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gksrk gs % mnkgj.k % CHECK (<Logical Expression>) (c) ^psd* fuczu/ks a ds fu;e (Restrictions on CHECK Constraints) 'CHECK' Constraints dk iz;ksx djrs le; fueufyf[kr izfrca/ks a (Restrictions) dk ikyu djuk vko';d gksrk gs % 'CHECK' Constraint ds lkfk fy[kh xbz damh'ku esa Sub Queries dk iz;ksx ugha fd;k tk ldrka 87

88 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy damh'ku esa SYSDATE, UID, USER vfkok USERENV uked SQL iaqd'kul lfeefyr ugha gksus pkfg,a 6.4 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m }kjk v[k.mrk fuczu/ ifjhkkf"kr djuk (Defining Integrity Constraints in ALTER TABLE Command) ;fn fdlh iwoz&ifjhkkf"kr (Pre-Defined) Vscy dh lajpuk dks ifjofrzr djds blesa dksbz Constraint yxkuk gks] rks ;g dk;z 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m ds }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % mnkgj.k % ALTER TABLE <Table_Name> ADD <Constraint_Name>; ;g è;ku j[kuk vko';d gs fd ;fn Vscy ds dkwye esa igys ls dksbz,slk MkVk lafpr (Stored) gs] tks bu Constraints dk myya?ku (Violation) djrk gks] rks,slh flfkfr esa 'ALTER TABLE' ds }kjk yxk, x, Constraints izhkkoh ugha gksaxsa tsls& ;fn mijksdr 'Patient' uked Vscy ds 'patient_no' uked dkwye esa igys ls dksbz NULL vfkok Duplicate Value miflfkr gs] rks 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m ds }kjk bl dkwye dks PRIMARY KEY ds :i esa Set ugha fd;k tk ldrka 6.5 v[k.mrk fuczu/ dks gvkuk (Dropping Integrity Constraints) ;fn fdlh Vscy ij yxk, x, Constraints dks gvkuk gks] rks ;g dk;z 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m ds lkfk 'DROP Clause ds }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gsa mnkgj.k % ALTER TABLE <Table_Name> DROP <Constraint_Name>; 'NULL' osy;w vo/kj.kk (NULL Value Concept) fdlh Vscy esa osy;w j[krs le; dhkh&dhkh Vscy ds izr;sd dkwye ds fy, osy;w miyc/ (Available) vfkok iz;kst; (Applicable) ugha gksrha dqn ifjflfkfr;ksa esa osy;w vkkr (Unknown) Hkh

89 gks ldrh gsaa bl izdkj dh fjdr osy;w ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'NULL' osy;w dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn dkwye ds fy, mi;qdr vuqiyc/ vfkok vkkr gks] rks bl le; ml dkwye esa osy;w ds LFkku ij 'NULL' fy[kk tk ldrk gsa NULL osy;w dh egroiw.kz fo'ks"krk, fueufyf[kr gsa % bls fdlh Hkh MkVk&Vkbi okys dkwye esa j[kk tk ldrk gsa NULL dk eku ^'kwu;* vfkok 'Blank Space' ls fhkuu gksrk gsa NULL osy;w dks fdlh Expression es a iz;ksx djus ij bldk ifj.kke lnso NULL gh gksrk gsa 'NULL' osy;w dh ladyiuk (concept) dks fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % ;fn 'STUDENTS' uked,d Vscy esa Roll_No., Name rfkk Marks rhu dkwye gsa rfkk MARKS dkwye ds fy, dksbz osy;w miyc/ ugha gs] rks 'INSERT' dek.m ds }kjk Vscy esa MkVk Hkstrs le; 'MARKS' dkwye ds fy, osy;w ds LFkku ij 'NULL' fy[kk tk ldrk gsa tsls& MkVk fuczu/ mijksdr LVsVesaV ds }kjk osy;w 'INSERT' djus ij Roll_No dkwye esa 555, 'NAME' dkwye esa SUNIL rfkk 'MARKS' dkwye esa NULL osy;w lafpr gksxha 6.7 'NOT NULL' fuczu/ (NOT NULL Constraint) vkwjsdy esa 'NULL' osy;w dk iz;ksx fdlh dkwye dks fjdr (Blank) j[kus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa blds foifjr ;fn fdlh dkwye esa osy;w j[kuk vfuok;z?kksf"kr djuk gks] rks ;g dk;z 'NOT NULL' }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gsa blds }kjk ;g lqfuf'pr fd;k tkrk gs fd dkwye dh osy;w fjdr (Blank) vfkok NULL u nh tk ldsa ;g dk;z 'NOT NULL' Constraint ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % <Column_Name> <Data_Type> (<size>) NOT NULL ;g è;ku j[kuk vko';d gs fd 'NOT NULL' Constraint dks dsoy dkwye Lrj ij gh iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa mnkgj.k % 89

90 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mijksdr mnkgj.k esa STUDENTS uked Vscy dks fufezr djrs le; NAME uked dkwye dks NOT NULL?kksf"kr fd;k x;k gsa bldk vfkz ;g gs fd bl dkwye esa Duplicate Values gks ldrh gsa] ijurq bls fjdr vfkok NULL ugha j[kk tk ldrk gsa 6.8 fmiqkwyv osy;w vo/kj.kk (Default Value Concepts) vkwjsdy es a Vscy ds dkwyeks a ds lkfk dksbz fmiqkwyv osy;w Hkh nh tk ldrh gsa bl vo/kj.kk es a Vscy ds dkwye dks ifjhkkf"kr djrs le; gh blds lkfk,d osy;w Hkh nh tkrh gsa ;g dk;z 'CREATE TABLE' dek.m dh 'DEFAULT' Clause ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % <Column_Name> <Datatype> (<size>) DEFAULT <Value> vc ;fn Vscy ds dkwye esa MkVk izfo"v djrs le; dkwye ds fy, dksbz osy;w nh xbz gs] rks og ubz osy;w ml dkwye esa Hksth tkrh gsa ijurq] ;fn dkwye dks fjdr j[kk x;k gs] rks vkwjsdy batu Lor% gh ;g fmiqkwyv osy;w dkwye esa ml fjdkwmz ds lkfk j[k nsrk gsa bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>k;k x;k gsa mnkgj.k % mijksdr mnkgj.k esa Vscy dk fuekz.k djrs le; 'CLASS' uked dkwye ds fy, fmiqkwyv osy;w 'BCA' nh xbz gsa vr% ;fn dksbz fjdkwmz izfo"v djus ij bl dkwye dh osy;w u nh tk,] rks vkwjsdy batu Lor% gh ml dkwye dh osy;w 'BCA', dj nsrk gsa fmiqkwyv osy;w nsrs le; fueufyf[kr ckrksa dk è;ku j[kuk vko';d gksrk gs % 'DEFAULT' osy;w dk Vkbi Hkh ogh gksuk pkfg,] tks lacaf/r dkwye dk MkVk&Vkbi gsa ;fn dksbz Character vfkok 'DATE' Vkbi dh osy;w nh tkuh gs] rks bls Single Quotes ('...') ds chp fy[kk tkrk gsa ;fn fmiqkwyv osy;w okys dkwye ij dksbz dkwye Lrj Constraint yxk;k tk jgk gs] rks DEFAULT osy;w dks lnso gh Constraint ds igys?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % <Column_Name> <Data_Type> (<size>) DEFAULT <Value><Constraint> 6.9 'USER CONSTRAINTS' Vscy (The User constraints Table) ge tkurs gsa fd ;wtj }kjk fufezr fdlh Vscy dh lajpuk dks iznf'kzr djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa fueufyf[kr dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs % 90 DESCRIBE <Table_Name>;

91 mnkgj.k % DESCRIBE STUDENTS; ijurq] ;g dek.m dsoy Vscy ds dkwye ds uke] mudk MkVk&Vkbi] lkbt rfkk NOT NULL Constraints dh tkudkjh iznf'kzr djrh gsa bl dek.m ds }kjk Vscy ds dkwye ls lacaf/r vu; lwpukvksa tsls& PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY br;kfn dks izkir ugha fd;k tk ldrka fdlh Vscy ls lacaf/r mdr lwpukvksa dks vkwjsdy }kjk 'USER_CONSTRAINTS' uked,d fo'ks"k Vscy esa lafpr fd;k tkrk gsa bl Vscy ij 'SELECT' dfku dk iz;ksx djds bu fofhkuu lwpukvksa dks iznf'kzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa 'USER_CONSTRAINTS' Vscy esa vusd dkwye gksrs gsa] ftuesa ls dqn fueufyf[kr gsa % MkVk fuczu/ dkwye uke (Column Name) OWNER CONSTRAINT_NAME TABLE_NAME fooj.k (Description) Constraint dk owner Constraint dk uke Vscy dk uke CONSTRAINT_TYPE Constraint dk izdkj % P : Primary key Constraint R : Foreign key Constraint U : Unique Constraint C : Check Constraint SEARCH_CONDITION R_OWNER R_CONSTRAINT-NAME Check Constraint esa iz;qdr conditon Foreign key Constraint }kjk Refer fd, tk jgs Vscy ds Owner dk ukea Foreign key Constraint }kjk Refer fd, tk jgs Constraint dk ukea 'User_Constraints' Vscy dh lgk;rk ls fdlh Vscy ds fofhkuu Constraints dh tkudkjh iznf'kzr djus dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gksrk gs % mnkgj.k % SELECT <Column_Name_1>,<Column_Name_2>...FROM USER_CONSTRAINTS WHERE TABLE_NAME = <Table_Name>' Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- çkbejh dh fuczu/ dh D;k fo'ks"krk, gksrh gsa\ 2- ^;wfud&dh*,oa ^çkbejh&dh* dh fuczu/ esa D;k vurj gksrk gs\ 3- Null osy;w dh D;k fo'ks"krk, gksrh gsa\ 91

92 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 92 lkjka'k (Summary) fllve esa,df=kr rfkk lafpr djus ls iwoz MkVk dh iw.kzrk,oa 'kq¼rk dks tkapuk vko';d gksrk gsa izr;sd O;olk; vfkok fohkkx dh vko';drkvksa rfkk flfkfr;ksa ds vk/kj ij O;oLFkkidksa (Managers) }kjk bl dk;z ds fy, dqn fu;e ifjhkkf"kr fd, tkrs gsaa tks MkVk bu lhkh fu;eksa dk iw.kzr;k ikyu djrk gks] dsoy ml MkVk dks gh MkVkcsl ds Vscyksa esa j[kk tkrk gsa fdlh Hkh fllve esa MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Integrity) rfkk 'kq¼rk dh tkap djus ds fy, ml MkVk ij yxk, tkus okys bu fu;eksa dks MkVk fu;ked (Data Constraints) dgk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy esa fdlh MkVk fuczu/ dks SQL dh lgk;rk ls Vscy ds dkwye (columns) ij yxk;k tk ldrk gsa ;s Constraints fdlh MkVk dks lafpr (Store) djus ls igys MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Integrity) dh tkap djrs gsaa,d ckj bu fuczu/ksa dks fdlh Vscy dh dkwye lajpuk (Structure) esa lfeefyr dj fy, tkus ij vkwjsdy batu ml Vscy esa izfo"v fd, tk jgs izr;sd MkVk dks bu constraints dh Conditions ds vk/kj ij tk prk gsa Input/Output fuczu/ dks I/O fuczu/ Hkh dgk tkrk gsa ;s MkVk fu;ked fdlh Vscy esa j[ks tkus okys (Input) vfkok Vscy ls izkir fd, tkus okys (Out-put) ds fy;s fu;eksa dks fu/ kzfjr djrs gsaa 'PRIMARY KEY' Constraint fdlh Vscy eas,sls,d vfkok vf/d dkwyeksa dk lewg gksrk gs] ftlds }kjk Vscy dh izr;sd iafdr dks vf}rh; :i ls (Uniquely) vyx&vyx igpkuk tk ldsa ;fn 'PRIMARY KEY' dks dsoy,d gh dkwye ij yxk;k x;k gs] rks bl PRIMARY KEY dks 'Simple key' dgk tkrk gsa ;fn dsoy,d dkwye ds vk/kj ij fjdkwmz dks Uniquely igpku ikuk lehko u gks] rks bl flfkfr esa Primary Key dks,d ls vf/d dkwyeksa ij yxk;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj dh izkfkfed dq th (Primary Key) dks 'Composite Key' dgrs gsaa 'Primary key' dks 'Create Table' vfkok 'ALTER TABLE' nksuksa dek.mksa ds }kjk ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa iqkwjsu&dh,d,slk dkwye (vfkok dkwyeksa dk lewg) gksrk gs] ftlds fy, osy;w fdlh vu; Vscy dh ^izkbejh&dh* vfkok ^;wfud&dh* ls izkir (Derive) dh xbz gksaa og Vscy] ftlesa fdlh ^iqkwjsu&dh* dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gs] mls 'Foreign Table' vfkok 'Detail Table' dgk tkrk gsa blh izdkj og Vscy ftlesa bl 'Foreign Key' ls lacafèkr 'Primary Key' vfkok 'Unique Key' dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gs] ml table dks 'Primary Table' vfkok 'Master Table' dgrs gsaa 'Detail Table' esa Foreign Key dkwye dks ifjhkkf"kr djrs le; Master Table dk lanhkz (Reference) nsus ds fy, 'REFERENCES TableName. ColumnName' Clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 'UNIQUE KEY' uked,d vu; Constraint Hkh yxk;k tk ldrk gsa blds }kjk Vscy ds dkwyeksa esa,d ls vf/d NULL izfof"v;k (Entries) j[kh tk ldrh gs ijurq] buesa dksbz Duplicate Values j[kuk Lohdk;Z (Allowed) ugha gksrka fofhkuu O;oLkkf;d fu;eksa (Business Rules) dks Vscy ds dkwyeksa ij ykxw djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'CHECK' Constraints dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu fuczu/ksa ds lkfk,d rkfdzd fo/ku (Logical Expression) fy[kk tkrk gs] ftldk ifj.kke (Result) lnso gh lr; (True) vfkok vlr; (False) feyrk gsa

93 ;fn fdlh iwoz&ifjhkkf"kr (Pre-Defined) Vscy dh lajpuk dks ifjofrzr djds blesa dksbz Constraint yxkuk gks] rks ;g dk;z 'ALTER TABLE' dek.m ds }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gsa fdlh Vscy esa osy;w j[krs le; dhkh&dhkh Vscy ds izr;sd dkwye ds fy, osy;w miyc/ (Available) vfkok iz;kst; (Applicable) ugha gksrha dqn ifjflfkfr;ksa esa osy;w vkkr (Unknown) Hkh gks ldrh gsaa bl izdkj dh fjdr osy;w ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'NULL' osy;w dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn dkwye ds fy, mi;qdr vuqiyc/ vfkok vkkr gks] rks bl le; ml dkwye esa osy;w ds LFkku ij 'NULL' fy[kk tk ldrk gsa MkVk fuczu/ vkwjsdy esa 'NULL' osy;w dk iz;ksx fdlh dkwye dks fjdr (Blank) j[kus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa blds foifjr ;fn fdlh dkwye esa osy;w j[kuk vfuok;z?kksf"kr djuk gks] rks ;g dk;z 'NOT NULL' }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gsa blds }kjk ;g lqfuf'pr fd;k tkrk gs fd dkwye dh osy;w fjdr (Blank) vfkok NULL u nh tk ldsa vc ;fn Vscy ds dkwye esa MkVk izfo"v djrs le; dkwye ds fy, dksbz osy;w nh xbz gs] rks og ubz osy;w ml dkwye esa Hksth tkrh gsa ijurq] ;fn dkwye dks fjdr j[kk x;k gs] rks vkwjsdy batu Lor% gh ;g fmiqkwyv osy;w dkwye esa ml fjdkwmz ds lkfk j[k nsrk gsa Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. PRIMARY KEY dh fueufyf[kr nks fo'ks"krk, gksrh gsa % (1) 'PRIMARY KEY' dkwye esa fdlh Hkh iqhym dk eku (value) fjdr (Balank) vfkok NULL ugha j[kk tk ldrka (2) 'PRIMARY KEY' dkwye dk MkVk vf}rh; (Unique) gksuk pkfg,a 2. UNIQUE KEY rfkk PRIMANRY KEY dh yxhkx lhkh fo'ks"krk, leku gksrh gsaa buesa varj dsoy ;gh gs fd 'PRIMANRY KEY' esa NULL osy;w ugha j[kh tk ldrh] tcfd] 'UNIQUE KEY' eas NULL osy;w Hkh gks ldrh gsa UNIQUE KEY dks Hkh dkwye Lrj rfkk Vscy Lrj nksuksa ij gh ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa 3. NULL osy;w dh egroiw.kz fo'ks"krk, fueufyf[kr gsa % bls fdlh Hkh MkVk&Vkbi okys dkwye esa j[kk tk ldrk gsa NULL dk eku ^'kwu;* vfkok 'Blank Space' ls fhkuu gksrk gsa NULL osy;w dks fdlh Expression es a iz;ksx djus ij bldk ifj.kke lnso NULL gh gksrk gsa vh;kl (Exercise) 1- MkVk fuczu/ksa (Data Constraints) ls vki D;k le>rs gsa \ buds iz;ksx dh vko';drk D;ksa gksrh gs \ 2- 'izkbejh&dh (Primary-Key)' fuczu/ dks le>kb;sa bldh eq[; fo'ks"krk, D;k gsa \ 3- dkwye Lrjh; ^izkbejh&dh (Primary Key)' dk fluvsdl,oa mnkgj.k fyf[k,a 4- Composite Primary Key dh vko';drk D;ksa gksrh gs \ blds iz;ksx dk,d mnkgj.k nhft;sa 5- 'Master Table' rfkk 'Detail Table' fdls dgrs gs a \ dkwye&lrj rfkk Vscy Lrj ij 'Foreign Key' dks ifjhkkf"kr djus dk fluvsdl fyf[k;sa 6- 'Foreign Key' ds lanhkz es a 'ON DELETE CASCADE' rfkk 'ON DELETE SET NULL' dk iz;ksx le>kb;sa bu nksuksa esa D;k varj gs \ 93

94 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 7- laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;s % (a) Unique Key Constraint (b) NULL Constraint (c) NOT NULL Constraint 8- dkwye Lrj rfkk Vscy Lrj ij 'CHECK' fuczu/ ds iz;ksx dks,d mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>kb;sa 9- DEFAULT VALUE dh vo/kj.kk dks Li"V dhft;sa,d mnkgj.k nhft;sa 10- fueufyf[kr dk;ksza ds fy, 'ALTER TABLE' dfku ds iz;ksx dk fluvsdl,oa mnkgj.k fyf[k;s% (a) fdlh Vscy ij fuczu/ ifjhkkf"kr djuka (b) fdlh Vscy ls fuczu/ gvkuka 11- USER_CONSTRAINTS' Vscy ds eq[; LraHkksa (Columns) dk o.kzu dhft;sa 94

95 7 SQL esa MkVk&O;oLFkkiu (Data Manipulation in SQL) SQL esa MkVk&O;oLFkkiu bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % vkwjsdy vkwijsvlz jsat lfp±x (Range Searching) isvuz esfpax (Pattern Matching) 'LIKE', 'IN' rfkk 'NOT IN' fo/s; 'M~;wvy (DUAL)' Vscy dk ifjp; 'SYSDATE' dk ifjp; 7.1 ifjp; (Introduction) vkwjsdy esa CREATE, INSERT, SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE br;kfn dfkuksa dk iz;ksx dqn lkeku; dk;ks± tsls fofhkuu vkwctsdv~l (Tables, Views, Index) dk fuekz.k djus] muesa MkVk j[kus] MkVk dks iznf'kzr djus] mlesa ifjorzu djus rfkk MkVk dks fevkus br;kfn ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa ijurq oklrfod fo'o (Real-world) dh vko';drkvksa dks iw.kz djus ds fy, dsoy bruk gh i;kzir ugha gksrka izr;sd O;olk; vfkok fohkkx esa MkVk dks izkir djus] lafpr djus] iznf'kzr djus br;kfn dk;ks± ds vfrfjdr MkVk ij fofhkuu izdkj dh x.kuk, (Calculations/Computations) djus rfkk fhkuu&fhkuu flfkfr;ksa ds vk/kj ij fhkuu&fhkuu izdkj ls ifj.kkeksa dks izkir djus,oa iznf'kzr djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa bl izdkj ds fofhkuu dk;ks± ds fy, vkwjsdy esa vkwijsvlz] iaqd'kul rfkk vu; fof'k"v rduhdksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 7.2 vkwijsvj (Operators) vkwjsdy esa Vscy ds MkVk ij fofhkuu izdkj dh x.kuk, djus],d ls vf/d MkVk osy;w ds chp rqyuk djus vfkok,d ls vf/d 'krksza (conditions) dks,d lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) djus ds fy, vkwijsvlz dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vkwijsvlz dqn fo'ks"k fpug (Symbols) vfkok ^dh&omz~l* (Key- 95

96 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy words) gksrs gsa] ftudk,d fuf'pr] iwoz&ifjhkkf"kr (Pre-defined) vfkz gksrk gsa izr;sd vkwijsvj dks fdlh fo'ks"k mís'; dh iwfrz ds fy,] dsoy mlh fof'k"v vfkz esa iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gs] ftlds fy, mls ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa vkwjsdy vkwijsvlz fueufyf[kr rhu izdkj ds gksrs gsa % (A) Arithmetic Operators (B) Comparison Operators (C) Logical Operators bu lhkh vkwijsvlz dks ;gk mnkgj.k lfgr le>k;k x;k gsa (A) xf.krh; vkwijsvj (Arithmetic Operators) fofhkuu izdkj ds vadxf.krh; dk;ks± (Arithmetic Operations) tsls& nks la[;kvksa dks tksm+uk] xq.kk djuk] HkkxiQy izkir djuk] vkfn ds fy, vkwjsdy esa xf.krh; vkwijsvjksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu vkwijsvjksa dks dks Insert, Update rfkk Delete tsls dfkuksa esa fy[kk tk ldrk gsa vkwjsdy ds eq[; xf.krh; vkwijsvlz fueufyf[kr gsa % mnkgj.k % vkwijsvj fooj.k + tksm+uk (Addition)?kVkuk (Subtraction) * xq.kk djuk (Multiplication) / Hkkx nsuk (Division) xf.krh; vkwijsvlz (B) rqyukred vkwijsvj (Comparison Operators) fofhkuu izdkj ds rqyukred dk;ks± (Comparison Operations) ds fy, vkwjsdy eas rqyukred vkwijsvjksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bugsa fjys'kuy vkwijsvj (Relational Operstors) Hkh dgrs gsaa ;s vkwijsvj fueufyf[kr gsaa 96 vkwijsvj fooj.k < Is less than > Is greater than <= Is less than or equal to >= Is greater than or equal to = Is equal to!= Is NOT equal to rqyukred vkwijsvlz

97 mnkgj.k % ;fn STUDENTS uked Vscy ls dsoy mu fjdkwmz dks iznf'kzr djuk gks] ftuesa 'PERCENT' dkwyedh osy;w 70 ls vf/d gs] rks buds fy, fueufyf[kr SELECT dfku fy[kk tk,xk % SQL esa MkVk&O;oLFkkiu (C) rkfdzd vkwijsvj (Logical Operators) vkwjsdy esa ;fn,d ls vf/d Conditons dks,d lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) djuk gks] ;g dk;z Logical operators dh lgk;rk ls fd;k tkrk gsa ;s Logical Operators fueufyf[kr gs% vkwijsvj AND OR NOT fooj.k Logical AND operator Logical OR operator Logical NOT operator rkfdzd vkwijsvlz (i) rkfdzd AND vkwijsvj (Logical AND Operator) Logical AND vkwijsvj dh lgk;rk ls,d SQL dfku esa,d ls vfèkd 'krks± (conditions) dks,d lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g vkwijsvj fdlh Dosjh ds Result-Set esa dsoy mu fjdkwmks± dks gh lfeefyr djrk gs] tks dfku esa nh xbz lhkh damh'kuksa dks iw.kz djrs gsaa mnkgj.k % ;fn 'EMPLOYEE' uked Vscy ls dsoy os fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djuk gs] ftuesa 'SALARY' dkwye dh osy;w ls vf/d rfkk ls de gs] rks ;gk 'SELECT' dfku esa fueufyf[kr nks Conditions fy[kus dh vko';drk gksxh % (a) 'SAL' > (b) 'SAL' < bu nksuksa damh'kuksa dks Combine djus ds fy, 'AND' vkwijsvj dks bl izdkj fy[kk tk,xk% 97

98 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mijksdr mnkgj.k esa dsoy os fjdkwmz gh iznf'kzr gksaxs tks nksuksa Conditions dks iw.kz djrs gksaa vfkkzr~ ftuesa 'SAL' dkwye dh osy;w ls vf/d ^rfkk* (AND) ls de gsa (ii) rkfdzd OR vkwijsvj (Logical OR Operator) Logical 'AND' dh gh rjg vkwjsdy eas nks Conditions dks,d dfku esa la;ksftr (Combine) djus ds fy, Logical 'OR' vkwijsvj dks iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa rkfdzd 'OR' vkwijsvj fdlh dfku ds Result Set esa mu lhkh fjdkwmks± dks 'kkfey djrk gs] tks nh xbz nks Conditions es a ls de ls de,d Conditon dks iw.kz djrs gksaa mnkgj.k % ;fn 'TEACHERS' uked Vscy ls mu f'k{kdks a dk fjdkwmz izkir djuk gs] ftudk 'SUBJECT', Oracle vfkok Java gs] rks ;g dk;z fueufyf[kr dfku }kjk fd;k tk,xk % mijksdr dfku ds ifj.kke ds :i esa os lhkh fjdkwmz iznf'kzr gksaxs] ftuesa SUBJECT dkwye dh osy;w 'Oracle' ^vfkok (OR)* 'Java' gsa Combining 'AND' & 'OR' vkwjsdy esa vko';drk ds vuqlkj,d gh SQL dfku esa 'AND' rfkk 'OR' Operators dks,d lkfk la;ksftr djuk Hkh lehko gksrk gsa bl flfkfr esa,d gh dfku esa nks ls vfèkd Conditons nh tk ldrh gsa ;gk Conditons dks tk pus ds Øe dk è;ku j[kuk vr;ar vko';d gksrk gsa vr% bugsa mfpr :i ls O;ofLFkr djus ds fy, dks"bd '( )' fpugksa ds chp j[kk tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % ;fn gesa 'STUDENTS' uked Vscy ls os lhkh fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djuk gs] ftuesa 'PERCENT' dkwye dh osy;w 60 ls vf/d gks ^rfkk* 'CLASS' dkwye dh osy;w 'BCA' vfkok 'MSC' gks] rks bl flfkfr esa dfku ij fueufyf[kr rhu Conditons fy[kuk vko';d gs % (a) PERCENT > 60 (b) CLASS = 'BCA' (c) CLASS = 'MSC' è;ku nsus ;ksx; ckr ;g gs fd CLASS dh osy;w 'BCA' vfkok 'MSC' esa ls dksbz Hkh gks ldrh gs] vr% buds chp 'OR' vkwijsvj dk iz;ksx fd;k tk,xka bu rhuksa damh'kuksa ds vuqlkj ifj.kke izkir djus ds fy, fueufyf[kr dfku fy[kk tk,xk % 98

99 SQL esa MkVk&O;oLFkkiu mijksdr dfku esa 'OR' vkwijsvj ds lkfk nh xbz nksuksa damh'kuksa dks dks"bd esa fy[kk x;k gsa vr% lozizfke bugsa tk pk tk,xka buds i'pkr~ buesa ls dsoy os fjdkwmz iznf'kzr gksaxs ftuesa 'PERCENT' dkwye dh osy;w 60 ls vf/d gsa (iii) rkfdzd NOT vkwijsvj (Logical NOT Operator) vkwjsdy esa Logical 'AND' rfkk Logical 'OR' ds vfrfjdr,d vu; rkfdzd vkwijsvj Hkh gksrk gsa bldk uke Logical 'NOT' gsa ;g vkwijsvj fdlh Vscy ls os lhkh fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djrk gs] tks dfku esa nh xbz 'krz dks iw.kz ^ugha* djrs gsaa mnkgj.k % ;fn gesa 'BANK' uked Vscy ls,sls fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djuk gs] ftuesa 'LOAN' dkwye dh osy;w ls vf/d ^ugha* gs] rks blds fy, NOT vkwijsvj dks fueufyf[kr izdkj ls fy[kk tk ldrk gs % mijksdr dfku ds ifj.kke esa os lhkh fjdkwmz lfeefyr gksaxs] ftuds 'LOAN' dkwye dh osy;w ls vfèkd ugha gsa 7.3 jsat lfp±x (Range Searching) ;fn gesa osy;w dh fdlh fof'k"v lhek (Range) chp dk MkVk izkir djuk gks] ftlds fy, gesa fueu (Lower) rfkk mpp (Upper) Lrj dh osy;w Kkr gsa] rks bl flfkfr esa buds chp dh lhkh osy;w dh vkwjsdy esa 'BETWEEN' vkwijsvj ds }kjk izkir fd;k tk ldrk gsa fdlh fof'k"v lhek (Range) ds chp vkus okyh lhkh osy;w dks bl izdkj <w <us dh izfø;k 'Range Searching' dgykrh gsa Range Searching ds fy, 'BETWEEN' vkwijsvj ds lkfk lnso 'AND' vkwijsvj dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % SELECT < Column_Name 1>, <Column_Name 2>...FROM <Table_Name> WHERE <Column_Name> BETWEEN <Lower Value> AND <Upper Value>; 99

100 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % ;fn 'STUDENTS' Vscy ls os lhkh fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djuk gs] ftuesa 'ROLL-NO' dkwye dh osy;w '111' rfkk '555' ds chp gks] rks blds fy, 'BETWEEN...AND' dks SELECT dfku esa bl izdkj fy[kk tk,xk % SELECT * FROM STUDENTS WHERE ROLL_NO BEWEEN 111 AND 555; bl Dosjh ds ifj.kke esa os lhkh fjdkwmz iznf'kzr gksaxs] ftuds 'ROLL_NO' dkwye dh osy;w 111 rfkk 555 okyh osy;w ds chp flfkr gsaa mijksdr mnkgj.k dk vkmviqv fueufyf[kr gksxk % 3 'BETWEEN...AND' dk iz;ksx Character rfkk Numbers nksuksa MkVk&izdkjksa ds lkfk fd;k tk ldrk gsa ijurq] ;g è;ku j[kuk vko';d gs fd,d dfku esa Lower rfkk Upper limit dh Values dk Vkbi leku (Same) gksuk pkfg,a vfkkzr~ fhkuu&fhkuu izdkj dh osy;w dks,d gh 'BETWEEN'...AND' esa,d lkfk ugha j[kk tk ldrka 7.4 isvuz esfpax (Pattern Matching) 100 vkwjsdy esa Vscy ds MkVk dks iznf'kzr djrs le; MkVk dks fdlh fof'k"v damh'ku ds vk/kj ij fiqyvj djus ds fy, Comparison Operators (<,>, <=,> = b-) rfkk 'BETWEEN' vkwijsvj dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ijurq ;s vkwijsvj fdlh Vscy ls MkVk dks dsoy rhkh fiqyvj dj ldrs gs a] tc nh xbz damh'ku ds fy, dksbz Exact Match izkir gksa ijurq dhkh&dhkh dqn ifjflfkfr;ksa esa Exact Condition Kkr ugha gksrh gs vfkok fdlh MkVk dk dksbz Hkkx Hkh ;fn damh'ku dks va'kr% Hkh iw.kz djrk gks] rks mls Hkh ifj.kke (Result) esa lfeefyr djuk okafnr (Desired) gksrk gsa,slh flfkfr esa MkVk dks izkir djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'Pattern Matching' dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 'Pattern Matching' esa dqn fo'ks"k fo/s;ksa (Predicates) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] ftudh lgk;rk ls fdlh fo'ks"k isvuz ls iw.kzr% vfkok va'kr% feyusokys lhkh fjdkwmksa dks ifj.kke esa lfeefyr fd;k tkrk gsa ;s Predicates fueufyf[kr gsa % (a) LIKE Predicate (b) IN & NOT IN Predicates. bu lhkh Predicates dks ;gk mnkgj.k lfgr le>k;k x;k gsa (a) 'LIKE' fo/s; (The LIKE Predicate) 'LIKE' fo/s; }kjk,slh String Values izkir dh tk ldrh gsa] tks fdlh damh'ku dks iw.kzr% vfkok va'kr% larq"v djrh gksaa ;g dk;z dqn fo'ks"k fpugksa (Symbols) ds }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gs] ftugsa 'Wildcard Characters' dgrs gsaa ;s Wildcard Characters fueufyf[kr gsa %

101 (i) '%' ;g character fdlh Hkh yeckbz dh flavªx dk feyku djrk gsa (yeckbz 'kwu; characters Hkh gks ldrh gsa) (ii) '_' bl character ds }kjk,d v{kj dk feyku fd;k tk ldrk gsa bu nksuksa ds iz;ksx dks fueufyf[kr mnkgj.kksa esa le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k 1 % ;fn 'STUDENTS' uked Vscy ls os lhkh fjdkwmz izkir djuk gs] ftuesa 'NAME' dkwye dk izfke v{kj 'S' gksa ;g dk;z djus ds fy, '%' Character dks 'LIKE' Predicate ds lkfk bl izdkj fy[kk tk ldrk gs % SELECT * FROM STUDENTS WHERE NAME LIKE 'S%'; mijksdr dfku dks lhkh fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djrk gs] ftuesa 'NAME' dkwye dk izfke v{kj 'S' gsa ;gk 'LIKE' Predicate ds lkfk '%' dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gs] vr% 'NAME' dkwye dh flavªx fdlh Hkh yackbz dh gks ldrh gsa bldk vkmviqv fueufyf[kr gksxk % SQL esa MkVk&O;oLFkkiu mnkgj.k 2 % ;fn ges a 'COURSES' uked Vscy ls mu lhkh COURSES ds uke dks iznf'kzr djuk gs] ftuds uke dk f}rh; v{kj (Charcter) 'C' gs] rks blds fy, 'LIKE' predicate ds lkfk '_' wildcard character dks bl izdkj fy[kk tk,xk % SELECT NAME FROM COURSES WHERE NAME LIKE '_C%'; mijksdr dfku esa 'LIKE' ds lkfk izfke character ds LFkku ij '_' fy[kk x;k gs] f}rh; character 'C' gs rfkk blds ckn '%' dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gsa vr% mijksdr dfku ds }kjk os lhkh fjdkwmz iznf'kzr gksaxs] ftuesa 'NAME' dk izfke v{kj dksbz Hkh gks ldrk gs] ijurq] f}rh; v{kj 'C' gksxk rfkk blds ckn flavªx dh yeckbz fdrus Hkh Characters gks ldrh gsa bldk vkmviqv bl izdkj gksxk % 101

102 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy (b) 'IN' rfkk 'NOT IN' fo/s; (The 'IN' & 'NOT IN' Predicates),d osy;w dh rqyuk fdlh vu; osy;w ds lkfk djus ds fy, Operator '=' (Is equal to) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ijurq] ;g vkwijsvj dsoy,dy (Single) osy;w ds lkfk gh dk;z dj ldrk gsa ;fn,d ls vf/d osy;w ds lkfk rqyuk djuh gks] rks izr;sd osy;w ds fy, vyx&vyx '=' vkwijsvj fy[kus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa ;g dk;z 'IN' fo/s; dh lgk;rk ls vf/d ljyrkiwozd fd;k tk ldrk gsa 'IN' fo/s; ds }kjk,d lkfk,d ls vfèkd osy;w dh rqyuk dh tk ldrh gs] rfkk blesa vusd 'OR' vkwijsvj dk iz;ksx djuk Hkh vko';d ugha gksrka bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % mnkgj.k % SELECT <Column_Name_1>, <Column_Name_2>...FROM <Table Name> WHERE <Column_Name> IN ('Value 1', 'Value 2'...); ;fn 'CUSTOMERS' uked Vscy ls mu lhkh Customers ds fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djuk gks] tks 'Delhi' vfkok 'Mumbai' ls gsa] rks ;g dk;z djus ds fy, IN dks bl izdkj fy[kk tk,xk % SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE CITY IN ('Delhi', 'Mumbai'); blds vkmviqv es a os lhkh fjdkwmz lfeefyr gks axs] ftues a 'CITY' dkwye dh osy;w 'Delhi' vfkok 'Mumbai' es a ls dksbz Hkh gksa bl izdkj 'IN' dh lgk;rk ls osy;w dh,d lwph (List) dh rqyuk dh tk ldrh gs rfkk izr;sd osy;w ds fy, '=' rfkk 'OR' vkwijsvj fy[kus dh vko';drk ugha gksrha mijksdr mnkgj.k dk vkmviqv fueufyf[kr gksxk % 'IN' dh gh rjg,d ls vf/d osy;w ds lkfk dk;z djus ds fy, 'NOT IN' dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa 'NOT IN' dh dk;z&i¼fr 'IN' fo/s; ds foijhr gksrh gsa ;fn fdlh dfku esa 'NOT IN' dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gs] rks blds }kjk os lhkh fjdkwmz iznf'kzr gksaxs] tks nh xbz osy;w dks lfeefyr (Contain) ugha djrsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gsa% SELECT <Column_Name_1>,<Column_Name_2>... FROM <Table Name> WHERE <Column_Name> NOT IN (<Value_1>,<Value_2>,...); mnkgj.k % ;fn CUSTOMERS uked Vscy ls os lhkh fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djuk gks] ftudh 'CITY', Delhi vfkok Mumbai ugha gs] rks blds fy, NOT IN dks bl izdkj fy[kk tk ldrk gs % 102

103 SQL esa MkVk&O;oLFkkiu 7.5 dkwye&uke ifjofrzr djuk (Renaming Columns) fdlh Vscy ls MkVk dks iznf'kzr djrs le; Vscy ds fdlh dkwye vfkok leiw.kz Vscy dk uke ifjofrzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g dk;z 'Alias' ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa ;s Alias vlfkk;h (Temporary) gksrs gsa rfkk ;s dsoy iznf'kzr gksus okys vkmviqv ds fy, izhkkoh jgrs gsaa dkwye vfkok Vscy ds oklrfod uke buds }kjk LFkk;h (Permanent) :i ls ifjofrzr ugha gksrsa <Column_Name> Alias dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % SELECT <Column_Name> As <Column_Alias> FROM <Table_Name>; mnkgj.k % SELECT Last_Name As Family, First_Name FROM PERSONS; mijksdr mnkgj.k esa 'PERSONS' uked Vscy ls nks dkwye - 'First_Name' rfkk 'Last_Name' dks iznf'kzr fd;k tk jgk gsa ;gk 'Last_Name' dkwye ds fy, 'Family' dks Alias cuk;k x;k gsa vr% iznf'kzr vkmviqv esa 'Last_Name' dkwye dk uke 'Family' iznf'kzr gksxka ijurq] 'First_Name' esa dksbz ifjorzu ugha gksxka bl dfku dk vkmviqv fueufyf[kr gs % <Column_Name> Alias dh gh rjg <Table_Name> Alias dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % SELECT <Column_Name_1>,<Column_Name_2>,... FROM <Table_Name> "<Table_Alias>"; mnkgj.k % Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- xf.krh; vkwijsvj D;k gksrk gs \ 2- rk dd AND vkwijsvj D;k gksrk gs \ 3- DUAL D;k gs \ 103

104 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mijksdr dfku ds }kjk 'PERSONS' uked Vscy ls First_Name rfkk Last_Name ds fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djrs le; Vscy dk uke ifjofrzr djds 'FRIENDS' fy[kk x;k gsa Column Name rfkk Table Name Alias dk iz;ksx lkeku;r% vkwjsdy Functions,oa Joins br;kfn esa vf/d fd;k tkrk gsa 7.6 vkwjsdy dk 'DUAL' Vscy (The Oracle Table-DUAL) vkwjsdy esa Vscy ds vkmviqv dks iznf'kzr djus ds fy, 'SELECT' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl dfku dks fy[krs le; blds lkfk fdlh Vscy dk uke fy[kuk vfuok;z gsa ijurq dhkh&dhkh dqn vadxf.krh; ifjdyuksa (Arithmetic Calculations) ds ifj.kke vfkok dksbz MkVk br;kfn iznf'kzr djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa bl dk;z esa fdlh Vscy dk iz;ksx ugha fd;k tkrka,slh flfkfr esa <Table Name> ds fcuk SELECT dfku ds }kjk vkmviqv iznf'kzr dj ikuk lehko ugha gksrk gsa bl lel;k dk lek/ku djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'DUAL' uked,d Vscy ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa ;g Vscy] vkwjsdy MkVk fmd'kujh dk,d Hkkx gsa MkVk fmd'kujh dk Owner, SYS uked ;wtj gh bl Vscy dk Hkh Owner gksrk gsa DUAL, vkwjsdy dk,d NksVk Vscy gs] ftlesa dsoy,d iafdr rfkk,d dkwye gksrs gsaa dkwye dh fmiqkwyv osy;w 'X' gksrh gsa DUAL dh lajpuk dks iznf'kzr djus ij fueufyf[kr o.kzu izkir gksxk % blh izdkj bl Vscy ls fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djus ij fueufyf[kr vkmviqv fn[kkbz nsrk gs % 104

105 ;fn fdlh x.kuk (Calculation) dk ifj.kke iznf'kzr djuk gks] rks blds fy, DUAL dk iz;ksx bl izdkj fd;k tkrk gs SQL esa MkVk&O;oLFkkiu 7.7 SYSDATE vkwjsdy esa fllve dh orzeku Date rfkk Time dks j[kus ds fy, 'SYSDATE' uked,d Nn~e (Pseudo) dkwye dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn bls DUAL ds lkfk iz;ksx fd;k tk jgk gs] rks blds lkfk dksbz arguments nsus dh vko';drk ugha gksrh rfkk ;g dkwye orzeku Date iznf'kzr djrk gsa lkjka'k (Summary) izr;sd O;olk; vfkok fohkkx esa MkVk dks izkir djus] lafpr djus] iznf'kzr djus br;kfn dk;ks± ds vfrfjdr MkVk ij fofhkuu izdkj dh x.kuk, (Calculations/Computations) djus rfkk fhkuu&fhkuu flfkfr;ksa ds vkèkkj ij fhkuu&fhkuu izdkj ls ifj.kkeksa dks izkir djus,oa iznf'kzr djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa bl izdkj ds fofhkuu dk;ks± ds fy, vkwjsdy esa vkwijsvlz] iaqd'kul rfkk vu; fof'k"v rduhdksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vkwijsvlz dqn fo'ks"k fpug (Symbols) vfkok ^dh&omz~l* (Key-words) gksrs gsa] ftudk,d fuf'pr] iwoz&ifjhkkf"kr (Pre-defined) vfkz gksrk gsa izr;sd vkwijsvj dks fdlh fo'ks"k mís'; dh iwfrz ds fy,] dsoy mlh fof'k"v vfkz esa iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gs] ftlds fy, mls ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa fofhkuu izdkj ds vadxf.krh; dk;ks± (Arithmetic Operations) tsls& nks la[;kvksa dks tksm+uk] xq.kk djuk] HkkxiQy izkir djuk] vkfn ds fy, vkwjsdy esa xf.krh; vkwijsvjksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa fofhkuu izdkj ds rqyukred dk;ks± (Comparison Operations) ds fy, vkwjsdy eas rqyukred vkwijsvjksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bugsa fjys'kuy vkwijsvj (Relational Operstors) Hkh dgrs gsaa 105

106 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy vkwjsdy esa ;fn,d ls vf/d Conditons dks,d lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) djuk gks] ;g dk;z Logical operators dh lgk;rk ls fd;k tkrk gsa Logical AND vkwijsvj dh lgk;rk ls,d SQL dfku esa,d ls vfèkd 'krks± (conditions) dks,d lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g vkwijsvj fdlh Dosjh ds Result- Set esa dsoy mu fjdkwmks± dks gh lfeefyr djrk gs] tks dfku esa nh xbz lhkh damh'kuksa dks iw.kz djrs gsaa Logical 'AND' dh gh rjg vkwjsdy eas nks Conditions dks,d dfku esa la;ksftr (Combine) djus ds fy, Logical 'OR' vkwijsvj dks iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa rkfdzd 'OR' vkwijsvj fdlh dfku ds Result Set esa mu lhkh fjdkwmks± dks 'kkfey djrk gs] tks nh xbz nks Conditions esa ls de ls de,d Conditon dks iw.kz djrs gksaa vkwjsdy esa vko';drk ds vuqlkj,d gh SQL dfku esa 'AND' rfkk 'OR' Operators dks,d lkfk la;ksftr djuk Hkh lehko gksrk gsa vkwjsdy esa Logical 'AND' rfkk Logical 'OR' ds vfrfjdr,d vu; rkfdzd vkwijsvj Hkh gksrk gsa bldk uke Logical 'NOT' gsa ;g vkwijsvj fdlh Vscy ls os lhkh fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djrk gs] tks dfku esa nh xbz 'krz dks iw.kz ^ugha* djrs gsaa ;fn gesa osy;w dh fdlh fof'k"v lhek (Range) chp dk MkVk izkir djuk gks] ftlds fy, gesa fueu (Lower) rfkk mpp (Upper) Lrj dh osy;w Kkr gsa] rks bl flfkfr esa buds chp dh lhkh osy;w dh vkwjsdy esa 'BETWEEN' vkwijsvj ds }kjk izkir fd;k tk ldrk gsa fdlh fof'k"v lhek (Range) ds chp vkus okyh lhkh osy;w dks bl izdkj <w <us dh izfø;k 'Range Searching' dgykrh gsa Range Searching ds fy, 'BETWEEN' vkwijsvj ds lkfk lnso 'AND' vkwijsvj dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 'Pattern Matching' esa dqn fo'ks"k fo/s;ksa (Predicates) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] ftudh lgk;rk ls fdlh fo'ks"k isvuz ls iw.kzr% vfkok va'kr% feyusokys lhkh fjdkwmksa dks ifj.kke esa lfeefyr fd;k tkrk gsa 'LIKE' fo/s; }kjk,slh String Values izkir dh tk ldrh gsa] tks fdlh damh'ku dks iw.kzr% vfkok va'kr% larq"v djrh gksaa ;g dk;z dqn fo'ks"k fpugksa (Symbols) ds }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gs] ftugsa 'Wildcard Characters' dgrs gsaa 'IN' fo/s; ds }kjk,d lkfk,d ls vfèkd osy;w dh rqyuk dh tk ldrh gs] rfkk blesa vusd 'OR' vkwijsvj dk iz;ksx djuk Hkh vko';d ugha gksrka fdlh Vscy ls MkVk dks iznf'kzr djrs le; Vscy ds fdlh dkwye vfkok leiw.kz Vscy dk uke ifjofrzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g dk;z 'Alias' ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa ;s Alias vlfkk;h (Temporary) gksrs gsa rfkk ;s dsoy iznf'kzr gksus okys vkmviqv ds fy, izhkkoh jgrs gsaa dkwye vfkok Vscy ds oklrfod uke buds }kjk LFkk;h (Permanent) :i ls ifjofrzr ugha gksrsa vkwjsdy esa 'DUAL' uked,d Vscy ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa ;g Vscy] vkwjsdy MkVk fmd'kujh dk,d Hkkx gsa MkVk fmd'kujh dk Owner, SYS uked ;wtj gh bl Vscy dk Hkh Owner gksrk gsa DUAL, vkwjsdy dk,d NksVk Vscy gs] ftlesa dsoy,d iafdr rfkk,d dkwye gksrs gsaa 106 vkwjsdy esa fllve dh orzeku Date rfkk Time dks j[kus ds fy, 'SYSDATE' uked,d Nn~e (Pseudo) dkwye dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn bls DUAL ds lkfk iz;ksx fd;k tk jgk gs] rks blds lkfk dksbz arguments nsus dh vko';drk ugha gksrh rfkk ;g dkwye orzeku Date iznf'kzr djrk gsa

107 Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. fofhkuu izdkj ds vadxf.krh; dk;ks± (Arithmetic Operations) tsls& nks la[;kvksa dks tksm+uk] xq.kk djuk] HkkxiQy izkir djuk] vkfn ds fy, vkwjsdy esa xf.krh; vkwijsvjksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu vkwijsvjksa dks dks Insert, Update rfkk Delete tsls dfkuksa esa fy[kk tk ldrk gsa 2. Logical AND vkwijsvj dh lgk;rk ls,d SQL dfku esa,d ls vfèkd 'krks± (conditions) dks,d lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g vkwijsvj fdlh Dosjh ds Result- Set esa dsoy mu fjdkwmks± dks gh lfeefyr djrk gs] tks dfku esa nh xbz lhkh damh'kuksa dks iw.kz djrs gsaa 3. DUAL, vkwjsdy dk,d NksVk Vscy gs] ftlesa dsoy,d iafdr rfkk,d dkwye gksrs gsaa vh;kl (Exercise) 1- vkwijsvlz (Operators) D;k gsa \ vkwjsdy esa fdrus izdkj ds vkwijsvlz gksrs gsa \ izr;sd izdkj ds nks vkwijsvlz ds uke nhft;sa 2- laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;s % (a) (b),fjfkewfvd vkwijsvlz deiwfjlu vkwijsvlz 3- fueufyf[kr dk;ksza ds fy, SQL dfku fyf[k;s % (a) (b) 'LOAN' uked Vscy ls os lhkh fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djuk] ftuesa 'AMOUNT' dkwye dk eku '10000' ls vfèkd gksa 'EMPLOYEE' Vscy ds 'SALARY' uked dkwye esa eku '2000' tksm+dj 'SALARY' dkwye dks v ru (Update) djuka 4-,d mnkgj.k dh lgk;rk ls ykwftdy AND rfkk ykwftdy OR ds chp varj dks Li"V dhft;sa 5- ;fn 'EMPLOYEE' uked Vscy ls,sls lhkh fjdkwmz izkir djuk gs] ftuesa 'EXPERIENCE' dkwye dk eku '10' ls vf/d (>10) gks ^rfkk* 'SALARY' dkwye dk eku '10000' ls de (<10000) ^vfkok* '25000' ls vf/d (>25000) gks] rks blds fy;s 'AND',oa 'OR' dks la;ksftr (Combine) djus ds fy;s SQL dfku fyf[k;sa 6- laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;s % (a) (b) 'BETWEEN' izsfmdsv 'LIKE' izsfmdsv 7-,d mnkgj.k ds }kjk Range Searching dks le>kb;sa 8- 'LIKE' izsfmdsv ds lanhkz esa '%' rfkk '_' ds chp varj Li"V dhft;sa 9-,d ls vf/d Values dh rqyuk ds fy;s 'IN' rfkk 'NOT IN' dk iz;ksx djus ds D;k ykhk gs a \ 10- vkids COLLEGE ds fy;s 'TEACHERS' uked,d Vscy cukb;s] ftlesa 'NAME', 'SUBJECT' rfkk 'EXPERIENCE' dkwye gksaa bl Vscy ls fueu 'krksza ds vk/kj ij fjdkwmz izkir djus ds fy, SQL dfku fyf[k;s% (a) (b),sls lhkh 'TEACHERS' dk uke iznf'kzr djuk] ftudk 'SUBJECT' 'VB.Net' vfkok 'ORACLE' gksa (IN ds }kjk),sls lhkh 'TEACHERS' ds fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djuk] ftuds uke dk izfke v{kj (Character) 'S' gksa SQL esa MkVk&O;oLFkkiu 107

108 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy (c),sls lhkh 'TEACHER' ds uke,oa 'EXPERIENCE' ds eku iznf'kzr djuk] ftudk 'EXPERIENCE' 2 ls 5 o"kz ds chp gksa (d),sls lhkh 'TEACHERS' ds uke rfkk 'SUBJECT' iznf'kzr djuk] ftuds 'SUBJECT' dkwye dk eku 'ORACLE' vfkok 'DBMS' u gksa 11- vkwjsdy esa dkwye rfkk Vscy Alias dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 12- 'DUAL' Vscy dh lgk;rk ls fueufyf[kr dk;ks± ds fy, SQL dfku fyf[k;s % (a) fdugha nks la[;kvksa (mnk-& 20 rfkk 10) dk xq.kuiqy iznf'kzr djuka (b) fllve (System) dh orzeku frffk (Date) iznf'kzr djuka (c) DUAL Vscy dh lajpuk iznf'kzr djuka 108

109 8 vkwjsdy iaqd'ku (Oracle Functions) vkwjsdy iaqd'ku bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % vkwjsdy iaqd'ku iaqd'ku ds izdkj xzqi iaqd'ku Ldsyj iaqd'ku SQL esa 'DATE' ds lkfk dk;z djuk SQL esa fofhkuu rkfydkvksa ds MkVk dk lewghdj.k 8.1 vkwjsdy iaqd'ku (Oracle Functions) MkVkcsl esa lafpr MkVk ij vdlj fd, tkus okys dk;ks± tsls& Values dks tksm+uk] vkslr (Average) dh x.kuk djuk] Values dks,d ls nwljs MkVk&Vkbi esa :ikarfjr (Convert) djuk] br;kfn dks ljy cukus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa fofhkuu iaqd'kuksa dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa bu iaqd'kuksa dk eq[; ykhk ;g gs fd fdlh dk;z dks djus ds fy, izr;sd ckj iaqd'ku ls lacaf/r leiw.kz dksm fy[kus dh vko';drk ugha gksrha dsoy iaqd'ku dk uke fy[kus rfkk vko';d osy;w iznku djus ek=k ls gh iaqd'ku fø;kfuor gks tkrk gs rfkk okafnr ifj.kke izkir gks tkrk gsa iaqd'ku esa Hksth tkus okyh bu MkVk osy;wt dks Arguments dgrs gsaa fdlh iaqd'ku esa Arguments nsus dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % <Function_Name> (argumnet_1, argument_2,...); izr;sd iaqd'ku ds vuqlkj bu Arguments dh la[;k Hkh vyx&vyx vfkok 'kwu; Hkh gks ldrh gsa 109

110 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 8.2 iaqd'ku oxhzdj.k (Classification of Functions) iaqd'ku dh dk;zi¼fr ds vk/kj ij vkwjsdy iaqd'ku dks nks Jsf.k;ksa (Calegories) esa oxhzñr fd;k x;k gsa ;s Jsf.k;k fueufyf[kr gsa % (A) Gorup Functions (B) Scalar Functions bl Hkkx esa bu nksuksa Jsf.k;ksa ds fofhkuu iaqd'kuksa dh ppkz dh xbz gs % (A) xzqi&iaqd'ku (Gorup Functions) vkwjsdy ds,sls iaqd'ku] tks osy;w k ds,d lewg (set) ij dk;z djrs gsa] mugsa 'Group Functions' vfkok 'Aggregate Functions' dgk tkrk gsa ;s iaqd'ku fdlh Dosjh (query) esa iz;qdr Vscy dh iafdr;ksa ds leiw.kz lewg (Set) ds fy,,d Result Row iznku djrs gsaa dqn eq[; Aggregate (Group) Functions fueufyf[kr gsa % (1) AVG ;g iaqd'ku fdlh dkwye dh osy;wt dk vkslr (Average) iznku (Return) djrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % AVG (<Column Name>) mnkgj.k % (2) COUNT (Expression) ;g iaqd'ku 'Expression' esa fy[ks x, dkwye dh lhkh iafdr;ksa dh la[;k iznku djrk gsa ifj.kke esa dsoy mu iafdr;ksa dh x.kuk dh tkrh gs] ftudh osy;w 'NULL' ugha gsa fluvsdl : COUNT (<Exprresion>) mnkgj.k % 110 (3) COUNT (*) ;g iaqd'ku fdlh Vscy esa iafdr;ksa dh la[;k dks fxurk gsa blds ifj.kke esa nksgjh iafdr;k (Duplicate Rows) rfkk NULL osy;w okyh iafdr;k Hkh lfeefyr gksrh gsa fluvsdl : COUNT (*)

111 mnkgj.k % vkwjsdy iaqd'ku (4) MAX ;g iaqd'ku fn, x, dkwye dh lhkh osy;wt esa ls lcls cm+h (Maximum) osy;w iznku djrk gsa fluvsdl : MAX (<expression>) mnkgj.k % (5) MIN ;g iaqd'ku fdlh fn, x, dkwye dh lhkh osy;wt esa ls lcls NksVh (Minimum) osy;w iznf'kzr djrk gsa fluvsdl : MIN (<expression>) mnkgj.k % (6) SUM ;g iaqd'ku fn, x, dkwye dh lhkh osy;wt dk ;ksxiqy (Sum) iznku djrk gsa fluvsdl : SUM (<expression>) mnkgj.k % 111

112 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy (B) Ldsyj iaqd'ku (Scalar Functions) vkwjsdy ds,sls iaqd'ku] tks dsoy,d gh osy;w ij dk;z djrs gsa] mugsa 'Scalar Functions' dgk tkrk gsa bugsa 'Single Row Functions' Hkh dgrs gsaa ;s Functions fdlh Dosjh esa iz;qdr Vscy dh izr;sd iafdr ds fy,,d ifj.kke izr;kofrzr (Return) djrs gsaa bu iaqd'kuksa esa fn, tkus okys Arguments ds MkVk&Vkbi ds vk/kj ij 'Single Row Functions' dks fueufyf[kr pkj izdkjksa esa oxhzñr fd;k x;k gs % (i) vadh; iaqd'ku (Numeric Functions) 'NUMBER' MkVk&Vkbi ds vkx;wzes.v ij dk;z djus okys iaqd'ku bl Js.kh esa lfeefyr fd, x, gsaa ;s iaqd'ku fueufyf[kr gsa % (1) ABS ;g iaqd'ku blds vkx;wzes.v esa fn, x, NUMBER dk fujis{k eku (Absolute value) izr;kofrzr (Return) djrk gsa fluvsdl : mnkgj.k % ABS (<Number>) (2) POWER ;g iaqd'ku,d la[;k ij nwljh la[;k dh?kkr dh x.kuk djrk gsa POWER iaqd'ku nks vkx;wzes.v ysrk gs] ftuesa ls izfke vkx;wzesav vk/kj (Base) rfkk f}rh; vkx;wzesav?kkr (Power) ds fy, gksrk gsa fluvsdl : POWER (<base>,<power>) bl iaqd'ku esa f}rh; vkx;wzesav?kkr (Power),d Integer (iw.kk±d) la[;k gksuk vfuok;z gsa vu;fkk =kqfv lans'k iznf'kzr gksxka mnkgj.k % (3) ROUND bl iaqd'ku dk iz;ksx fdlh la[;k eas n'keyo fpug ds ckn iznf'kzr gksus okys vadksa dh la[;k fu/kzfjr djus rfkk blds vuqlkj mugsa Round-Off djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa 112 fluvsdl : ROUND (n[,m]) ;g iaqd'ku fdlh la[;k 'n' dks 'm' LFkkuksa rd Round-Off djrk gsa vfkkzr~ la[;k 'n' esa n'keyo fpug ds ckn dsoy 'm' vad iznf'kzr gksaxsa ;fn 'm' ds fy, dksbz eku u

113 fn;k tk,] rks 'n' dks 'kwu; vadksa rd Round-Off dj fn;k tkrk gsa ;fn n'keyo ds igys vkus okys vadksa dks Round-Off djuk gks] rks 'm' ds fy,,d ½.kkRed (Negative) eku fn;k tkrk gsa 'm',d Integer (iw.kkzd) gksuk vfuok;z gsa mnkgj.k % vkwjsdy iaqd'ku (4) SQRT ;g iaqd'ku fn, x, vkx;wzesav dk oxzewy (Square-Root) iznku djrk gsa fluvsdl : mnkgj.k % SQRT (<number>) (5) EXP ;g iaqd'ku 'e' ij ml la[;k dh?kkr izr;kofrzr (Return) djrk gs] tks la[;k vkx;wzesav ds :i esa nh xbz gsa (e dk eku & gksrk gsa) fluvsdl : mnkgj.k % EXP(n) (6) GREATEST ;g iaqd'ku nh xbz lwph (List) esa ls lcls cm+h la[;k izr;ofrzr djrk gsa fluvsdl : GREATEST (<value 1>,<value 2>,...<value N>) 113

114 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % (7) LEAST ;g iaqd'ku fdlh nh xbz lwph ls lcls NksVh la[;k iznku (return) djrk gsa fluvsdl : LEAST (<value 1>,<value 2>,...<value N) mnkgj.k % (8) MOD ;g iaqd'ku nks vkx;wzesav ysrk gs rfkk izfke vkx;wzesav dks f}rh; vkx;wzesav ls Hkkx nsus ij izkir 'ks"kiqy iznf'kzr djrk gsa fluvsdl : MOD (<value 1>,<value 2>) mnkgj.k % (9) FLOOR ;g iaqd'ku fdlh nh xbz la[;k ls igys vkus okyh] mppre vfkok lerqy; (Equivalent) la[;k iznf'kzr djrk gsa fluvsdl : FLOOR (<number>) mnkgj.k % 114

115 a a (10) CEIL ;g iaqd'ku fdlh nh xbz la[;k ds fy, mlls cm+h,d y?kqùke (Smallest) vfkok lerqy; la[;k iznf'kzr djrk gsa fluvsdl : CEIL (<Number>) mnkgj.k % vkwjsdy iaqd'ku (ii) flavªx iaqd'ku (String Functions) vkwjsdy ds os iaqd'ku] tks 'String' MkVk&izdkjks (CHAR, VARCHAR, VARCHAR2 br;kfn) ds vkx;w Zes av ij dk;z djrs gs a] mugs a bl Js.kh es j[kk x;k gsa ;s iaqd'ku fueufyf[kr gs a % (1) LOWER ;g iaqd'ku nh xbz flavªx ds lhkh v{kjksa dks Lower-Case esa ifjofrzr dj nsrk gsa fluvsdl : LOWER (<string>) mnkgj.k % (2) UPPER ;g iaqd'ku nh xbz flavªx ds v{kjksa dks Upper-Case esa ifjofrzr dj nsrk gsa fluvsdl : UPPER (<String>) mnkgj.k % (3) INITCAP ;g iaqd'ku nh xbz flavªx ds izr;sd 'kcn dk izfke v{kj Upper Case esa ifjofrzr dj nsrk gsa vu; Characters Lower Case esa gsaa fluvsdl : INITCAP (<String>) 115

116 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % (4) SUBSTR ;g iaqd'ku fdlh nh xbz flavªx dk,d Hkkx (Sub-String) izr;kofrzr (Return) djrk gsa blesa rhu vkx;wzesav fn, tkrs gsaa buesa ls igyk vkx;wzesav og flavªx gksrh gs] ftldk dksbz Hkkx fudkyuk gsa nwljk vkx;wzesav flavªx ds ml Character dh la[;k gksrh gs] tgk ls flavªx dk Hkkx izkjehk djuk gsa rhljs vkx;wzesav ds }kjk ;g crk;k tkrk gsa fd flavªx ls fdrus Characters ysuk gsa ;fn rhljs vkx;wzesav dk iz;ksx u fd;k tk,] rks flavªx ds var rd lhkh Characters ifj.kke esa izkir gksaxsa flavªx ds izfke Character dk Øekad 1 gksrk gsa fluvsdl : mnkgj.k % SUBSTR (<string>,<start-position>,[<tength>]) mijksdr mnkgj.k esa 'SUBSTR' iaqd'ku ds izfke vkx;wzesav esa flavªx 'COMPUTER' nh xbz gsa f}rh; vkx;wzesav 4 rfkk vafre vkx;wzesav 3 gsa bldk vfkz ;g gs fd bl flavªx ds 4 th Character ls izkjehk gksdj rhu Characters ifj.kke esa izkir gksaxsa (5) ASCII ;g iaqd'ku fn, x, Character dk ASCII Code iznku djrk gsa fluvsdl : ASCII (<character>) mnkgj.k % (6) INSTR ;g iaqd'ku fdlh nh xbz flavªx esa Sub-String dh flfkfr (location) n'kkzrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % 116 fluvsdl : INSTR (<string>,<sub-string>,[start-position>], [<n th -appearance>]

117 mijksdr fluvsdl esa <string> og flavªx gs] ftlesa <sub-stirng> dh flfkfr dks <wa<uk gsa <Start_Postion> ds }kjk ;g crk;k tkrk gs fd <Sting> ds fdl Character ls Search izkjehk djuk gsa <String> ds izfke Character dh flfkfr 1 gksrh gsa <Start_Position> dk iz;ksx osdfyid (Optional) gsa ;fn bls ugha fy[kk x;k gs] rks Searching Lor% gh 1 ls gksxha blds fy, dksbz ½.kkRed (negative) eku Hkh fn;k tk ldrk gsa,slk djus ij Searching, <String> ds vafre Character ls izkjfehkd Character dh vksj <Start_Position> esa fn, x, Character ls dh tkrh gsa mnkgj.k % vkwjsdy iaqd'ku <Sub_String> esa ;fn dksbz Character,d ls vf/d ckj miflfkr gs] rks mldh fdlh fof'k"v miflfkfr (Appearance) dks tkuus ds fy, <n th _appearance> dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk iz;ksx Hkh osdfyid gksrk gsa ;fn bls u fy[kk tk,] rks By default bldk eku 1 gksxka mnkgj.k % (7) TRANSLATE bl iaqd'ku ds }kjk fdlh flavªx esa o.kks± (Characters) ds,d Øe (Sequence) dks fdlh vu; Øe }kjk iqulfkkzfir (Replace) fd;k tk ldrk gsa fluvsdl : TRANSLATE (<original_string>,<characters_to_replace>,<replacement_characters>) mijksdr fluvsdl esa <Original_string> og flavx gs] ftlds Characters dks iqulfkkzfir (replace) djuk gsa <characters_to_replace> os characters gsa] ftugsa flavªx ls gvk;k tkuk gsa buds LFkku ij j[ks tkus okys characters dks <replacement_string> esa fn;k tkrk gsa <characters_to_replace> esa fy[ks x, lhkh characters Øe'k% <replacement_characters> }kjk iqulfkkzfir gks tkrs gsaa 117

118 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % Translate iaqd'ku,d le; ij,d Character dks iqulfkkzfir djrk gsa mijksdr mnkgj.k esa <characters_to_replace> esa nks Characters 'C' rfkk 'W' fy[ks x, gsaa buesa ls izfke Characters 'C', <replacement_characters> ds izfke v{kj 'P' }kjk rfkk f}rh; character 'W', <replacement_characters> ds f}rh; v{kj 'U" }kjk iqulfkkfir (Replace) gksxka (8) LENGTH ;g iaqd'ku nh xbz flavªx dh yeckbz (Length) izr;kofrzr (Return) djrk gsa fluvsdl : LENGTH (<String>) mnkgj.k % (9) LTRIM bl iaqd'ku ds }kjk fdlh flavªx ds ck;ha vksj (Left) ls Characters vfkok Spaces dks gvk;k tk ldrk gsa fluvsdl : LTRIM (Char [,<set>]) mijksdr fluvsdl esa iznf'kzr LTRIM iaqd'ku <set> esa fn, x, izfke Character rd lhkh Characters dks gvk nsrk gsa <set> dk iz;ksx osdfyid gksrk gsa ;fn bls ugha fy[kk x;k gs] rks fmiqkwyv :i ls (By Default), flavªx ds izkjehk ls lhkh spaces dks gvk;k tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % 118 (10) RTRIM ;g iaqd'ku fdlh <set> esa fn, x, Character ls izkjahk djds mlds ckn flavªx esa vkus okys lhkh characters dks gvk nsrk gsa

119 fluvsdl : RTRIM (Char [<set>]) ;gk <set> dk iz;ksx osdfyid gksrk gsa ;fn bls u fy[kk tk,] rks flavªx ds var esa vkus okys lhkh spaces gvk fn, tkrs gsaa mnkgj.k % vkwjsdy iaqd'ku (11) TRIM ;g iaqd'ku LTRIM rfkk RTRIM nksuksa dk la;kstu (Combination) gksrk gsa blds }kjk fdlh fof'k"v character dks flavªx ds izkjehk vfkok var nksuksa vksj ls gvk;k tk ldrk gsa fluvsdl : TRIM ([Leading Trailing Both [<character> FROM]] <string>) mijksdr fluvsdl esa] Leading ds }kjk <character> dks flavªx ds izkjehk ls rfkk Trailing ds }kjk <string> ds var ls gvk;k tkrk gsa Both dk iz;ksx djus ij <string> ds izkjehk rfkk var nksuksa vksj ls <character> dks gvk fn;k tkrk gsa bu lhkh dk iz;ksx osdfyid (Optional) gksrk gsa ;fn bugsa u fy[kk tk,] rks TRIM iaqd'ku] <string> ds nksuksa vksj ls <character> dks gvk nsrk gsa ;fn <character> dk iz;ksx Hkh u fd;k tk,] rks TRIM ds }kjk <String> ds izkjehk rfkk var] nksuksa vksj ls Blank Spaces gvk fn, tkrs gsaa bu lhkh dk;ksza dks fueu mnkgj.kksa }kjk le>k;k x;k gsa mnkgj.k 1 : mnkgj.k 2 : 119

120 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k 3 : mnkgj.k 4 : (12) LPAD ;g iaqd'ku fn, x, Character dks fdlh flavªx ds ck;ha vksj (Left) fof'k"v yeckbz rd tksm+ nsrk gsa bl iaqd'ku esa Characters dh,d la[;k nh tkrh gsa String ds Characters dh cph gqbz la[;k dks fn;s x, Characters }kjk Hkj fn;k tkrk gsa fluvsdl : LPAD (<String>,<length> [,<character>]) mijksdr fluvsdl esa <character> dk iz;ksx osdfyid gsa ;fn bls u fy[kk tk,] rks <string> ds Left esa <length> rd spaces ds }kjk padding dj nh tkrh gsa mnkgj.k % (13) RPAD ;g iaqd'ku fn, x, Character dks fdlh flavªx ds nkfguh (Right) vksj,d fof'k"v yeckbz rd tksm+ nsrk gsa fluvsdl : RPAD (<string>,<length> [,<character>]) mnkgj.k % 120

121 (iii) :ikarj.k iaqd'ku (Conversion Functions) bu functions dk iz;ksx fdlh,d MkVk&Vkbi dks fdlh vu; MkVk&Vkbi esa :ikurfjr (Convert) djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa ;s functions fueufyf[kr gsa % (1) TO_NUMBER ;g iaqd'ku] fdlh Character Vkbi dh osy;w dks NUMBER Vkbi es a ifjofrzr djrk gsa fluvsdl : To_NUMBER (<Char>) mnkgj.k % vkwjsdy iaqd'ku mijksdr dfku ds }kjk 'Accounts' uked Vscy esa 'BALANCE' dkwye dh lhkh osy;w esa 1000 tqm+ tk,xka (2) TO_CHAR bl iaqd'ku ds }kjk fdlh osy;w dks CHARACTER Vkbi esa ifjofrzr fd;k tkrk gsa bls NUMBER rfkk DATE izdkjksa ds fy, fueufyf[kr nks izdkj ls iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gs % (a) TO_CHAR (Number Conversion) ;g iaqd'ku] 'NUMBER' MkVk&Vkbi dh fdlh osy;w dks Character Vkbi esa ifjofrzr djrk gsa bl iaqd'ku ds lkfk nks vkx;wzesav fn, tk ldrs gsaa buesa ls igyk vkx;wzesav og la[;k (Number) gksrh gs] ftls Character Vkbi esa ifjofrzr djuk gs rfkk nwljs vkx;wzesav ds }kjk og izk:i (Format) crk;k tkrk gs] ftl izk:i esa Number dks iznf'kzr djuk gsa fluvsdl : TO_CHAR (<number> [,<format>]) bl iaqd'ku ds lkfk <Format> dk iz;ksx osdfyid gksrk gsa ;fn dksbz <Format> u fn;k x;k gks] rks Number mlh izk:i esa Character Type esa ifjofrzr gks tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % (b) TO_CHAR (Date Conversion) ;g iaqd'ku] 'DATE' Vkbi dh fdlh osy;w dks Character Vkbi esa ifjofrzr djrk gsa bl iaqd'ku ds lkfk nks vkx;wzesav fn, tk ldrs gsaa buesa ls igyk vkx;wzesav og DATE osy;w gksrh gs] ftls ifjofrzr djuk gs rfkk nwljk vkx;wzesav og izk:i gksrk gs] ftlesa bls iznf'kzr fd;k tkuk gsa ;g,d 'Date' izk:i gh gksuk pkfg,a fluvsdl : TO_CHAR (<Date> [,<format>]) ;gk <Format> dk iz;ksx osdfyid gksrk gsa ;fn bls u fy[kk tk,] rks DATE osy;w dks Character Vkbi esa ifjofrzr djrs le; fmiqkwyv DATE izk:i ('DD-MON- YY') dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 121

122 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % mijksdr mnkgj.k ds }kjk 'PERSONS' Vscy ds 'REF_NO' uked dkwye esa ftl fjdkwmz dk 'REF_No', 'P01' gs] mlds DOB dkwye dh osy;w dks Character Vkbi esa ifjofrzr djds fn, x, izk:i ds vuqlkj iznf'kzr fd;k tk jgk gsa (3) TO_DATE vkwjsdy es a 'DATE' Vkbi dk fmiqkwyv izk:i 'DD-MON-YY HH:MI:SS' gksrk gsa fdlh Vscy ds 'DATE' Vkbi okys dkwye esa j[kh tkus okyh vfkok bl dkwye ls izkir (Retrieve) dh tkus okyh izr;sd osy;w blh fmiqkwyv izk:i esa gksrh gsa DATE Vkbi okys dkwye ds MkVk dks fdlh vu; Vkbi esa ifjofrzr djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'TO-DATE' iaqd'ku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl iaqd'ku ds }kjk fdlh Character osy;w dks fn, x, DATE izk:i ds vuqlkj DATE Vkbi esa ifjofrzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa fluvsdl : mnkgj.k % TO_DATE (<character> [,<format>]) (iv) 'DATE' iaqd'ku (Date Functions) vkwjsdy esa dqn iaqd'ku gksrs gsa] ftudh lgk;rk ls 'Date' Vkbi dh Values ij fofhkuu izdkj ds dk;z fd, tk ldrs gsaa ;s DATE iaqd'ku fueufyf[kr gsa % (1) ADD_MONTHS ;g iaqd'ku nks vkx;wzesavksa ij dk;z djrk gsa buesa ls igyk vkx;wzesav,d frffk (Date) rfkk nwljk vkx;wzesav ekg (Month) ds fy, dksbz la[;k gksrh gsa ;g iaqd'ku nh xbz DATE esa bl iaqd'ku esa fn, x, ekg tksm+dj ubz DATE iznf'kzr djrk gsa 122 fluvsdl : ADD_MONTHS (<date>,<no-of-months>)

123 mnkgj.k % vkwjsdy iaqd'ku (2) LAST_DAY ;g iaqd'ku fn, x, ekg (Month) dk vafre fnu (Day) crkrk gsa fluvsdl : mnkgj.k % LAST_DAY (<month>) (3) NEXT_DAY ;g iaqd'ku fdlh frffk ds ckn lirkg ds fdlh fnu ds fy, vxyh frffk iznf'kzr djrk gsa blesa nks arguments fn, tkrs gsa] ftuesa ls igyk vkx;wzesav dksbz DATE rfkk nwljk vkx;wzesav lirkg ds fdlh fnu dk uke gksrk gsa fluvsdl : mnkgj.k % NEXT_DAY (<Date>,<weekday>) (4) MONTHS_BETWEEN ;g iaqd'ku nks DATE vkx;wzesav ysrk gs] rfkk muds chp vkus okyh eghuksa (Months) dh la[;k izr;kofrzr (Return) djrk gsa fluvsdl : MONTHS_BETWEEN (<date_1>,<date_2>) mnkgj.k % 123

124 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 8.3 SQL esa 'DATE' ds lkfk dk;z djuk (Manipulating Date in SQL) vkwjsdy esa DATE Values lnso gh DATE ds fmiqkwyv izk:i 'DD-MON-YY' esa j[kh tkrh gsaa 'Date' Vkbi ds fdlh dkwye esa osy;w nsrs le; ;fn fmiqkwyv izk:i dks ikyu u fd;k x;k gks] rks vkwjsdy ml MkVk dks fujlr (Reject) dj nsrk gs rfkk,d =kqfv lans'k (Error message) iznf'kzr fd;k tkrk gsa dqn flfkfr;ksa esa Vscy esa MkVk j[krs le; vfkok Vscy ls dksbz MkVk izkir djrs le; bl fmiqkwyv izk:i ds vfrfjdr fdlh vu; izk:i dk iz;ksx djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa DATE osy;w dks bl izdkj vu; izk:iksa (Formats) esa ifjofrzr djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa TO_CHAR rfkk TO_DATE iaqd'ku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (1) TO_CHAR TO_CHAR iaqd'ku ds }kjk DATE osy;w dks fmiqkwyv izk:i ds vfrfjdr fdlh vu; izk:i (Format) es a Hkh izkir fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl iaqd'ku dh lgk;rk ls leiw.kz DATE osy;w ds fdlh Hkkx tsls& frffk (Date), ekg (Month) vfkok o"kz (Year) dks Hkh izkir fd;k tk ldrk gs,oa bues a ls fdlh Hkh Hkkx ds vk/kj ij DATE dks Sort Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa fluvsdl : TO_CHAR (<date> [,<format>]) mnkgj.k % (2) TO-DATE bl iaqd'ku ds }kjk CHAR Vkbi esa nh xbz fdlh osy;w dks DATE Vkbi esa ifjofrzr fd;k tkrk gsa bldh lgk;rk ls Values dks DATE ds fmiqkwyv izk:i ds vfrfjdr fdlh vu; izk:i esa Hkh fn;k tk ldrk gsa fluvsdl : TO_DATE (<Char>[,<Format>]) ;gk <char> og osy;w gs] ftls Vscy ds DATE dkwye esa j[kuk gs rfkk <Format>, Date dk og izk:i gs] ftlesa ;g <char> osy;w nh tk jgh gsa mnkgj.k % 124

125 'TO_CHAR' ds lkfk DATE ds fofhkuu izk:iksa dk iz;ksx (Using Special DATE Formats with TO-CHAR) 1. 'TO_CHAR' ds lkfk izk:i 'DDSP' dk iz;ksx % DDSP ds }kjk DATE osy;w dks bldh Spelling ds lkfk n'kkz;k tkrk gsa tsls& ONE, TWO, THIRTY br;kfna fluvsdl % SELECT TO_CHAR ('DATE', 'DDSP') FROM TABLE_NAME; mnkgj.k % SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'DDSP')' "DDSP" FROM DUAL; vkmviqv % SIXTEEN 2. TO_CHAR ds lkfk izk:i 'TH' dk iz;ksx % DDTH ds }kjk DATE osy;w dks 'TH', 'RD', 'ND' ds lkfk iznf'kzr fd;k tkrk gsa tsls % 1ST, 2ND, 4TH br;kfna fluvsdl % SELECT TO_CHAR ('DATE', 'DDTH_MON_YY') FROM TABLE_NAME; mnkgj.k % SELECT TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'DDTH_MON_YY') "DDTH" FROM DUAL; vkmviqv % 16TH-FEB TO_CHAR ds lkfk izk:i 'SPTH' dk iz;ksx % SPTH ds }kjk DATE osy;w dh Spelling ds lkfk 'TH' iznf'kzr fd;k tkrk gsa fluvsdl % SELECT TO_CHAR ('DATE', 'DDSPTH') FROM TABLE_NAME; mnkgj.k % SELECT TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'DDSPTH') "DDSPTH" FROM DUAL; vkmviqv % SIXTEENTH 8.4 SQL esa fofhkuu rkfydkvksa ls MkVk dk lewghdj.k (Grouping Data From Tables in SQL) vkwjsdy es a 'SELECT' dfku ds }kjk Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;ks a dk MkVk izkir fd;k tkrk gsa fofhkuu ifjflfkfr;ksa ds vuqlkj Vscy ls fof'k"v izdkj ds fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djus ds fy, 'WHERE', DISTINCT' rfkk 'ORDER BY' CLAUSES dk iz;ksx Hkh 'SELECT' dfku es a fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;s lhkh Clauses fdlh Record-Set ds izr;sd fjdkwmz ij Lora=k :i ls dk;z djrh gsa mijksdr Clauses ds vfrfjdr laiw.kz Record-Set ij,df=kr :i ls dk;z djus ds fy, SQL es a 'GROUP BY' rfkk HAVING' uked nks vu; Clauses dk iz;ksx Hkh 'SELECT' dfku es a fd;k tk ldrk gsa (1) 'GROUP BY' Clause ;fn SQL esa fdlh Aggregate iaqd'ku dks SELECT dfku ds lkfk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] rks ;g iaqd'ku] dkwye dh izr;sd osy;w ds fy, laiw.kz Record-Set dk ifj.kke (Result) iznku djrk gsa mnkgj.k % ;fn 'SALES' uked fdlh Vscy esa fueufyf[kr MkVk gs % COMPANY AMOUNT SKP 5500 IBNS 4500 SKP 7100 ;fn bl Vscy ij fdlh Aggregate Function' (tsls& SUM) dk iz;ksx fd;k tk,a tsls SELECT SUM (AMOUNT) FROM SALES; rks blds }kjk fueufyf[kr vkmviqv izkir gksxk % SUM (AMOUNT) vkwjsdy iaqd'ku Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- COUNT (Expression) D;k gs \ 2- Power iaqd'ku D;k gksrk gs\ 3- TRIM() ds ckjs esa vki D;k tkurs gsa\ 125

126 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mijksdr mnkgj.k esa SUM iaqd'ku] SALES uked Vscy ds AMOUNT dkwye dh lhkh iafdr;ksa ds MkVk dk ;ksxiqy (SUM) iznf'kzr dj jgk gsa ijurq] blds }kjk ;g Li"V ugha tkuk tk ldrk fd Vscy esa izr;sd deiuh ds fy, AMOUNT dkwye dh fofhkuu izfof"v;ksa (Entries) dk dqy ;ksx D;k gsa bl lel;k ds lek/ku ds fy, SQL esa 'GROUP BY' uked Clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % SELECT <Column 1>,<Column 2>... AGGREGATE_FUNCTION (<Expression>) FROM <Table Name> WHERE <Condition> GROUP BY <Column 1>,<Column 2>...<Column N>; mnkgj.k % ;fn mijksdr mnkgj.k esa of.kzr 'SELECT' dfku dks bl izdkj ifjofrzr djds fy[kk tk, % mijksdr dfku esa 'Sales' Vscy ds lkfk SUM( ) dk iz;ksx djrs le; AMOUNT dkwye dh Values dks 'COMPANY' ds vuqlkj GROUP fd;k x;k gsa vr% 'kq¼ (Correct) ifj.kke izkir gks jgk gsa (2) 'HAVING' Clause Vscy ds fdlh dkwye ds fjdkwmks± dks,d lewg esa j[kus ds fy, SQL esa 'GROUP BY' Clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn 'GROUP BY' ds }kjk izkir ifj.kkeksa dks vksj vf/d fiqyvj djus vfkok bu ifj.kkeksa ij dksbz vfrfjdr damh'ku yxkus dh vko';drk gks] rks blds fy, 'GROUP BY' ds lkfk 'HAVING' uked Clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gksrk gs % SELECT <Column>,<Column 2>... AGGEGATE_FUNCTION (<Expression>) FROM <Table-Name> WHERE <Condition> GROUP BY <Column 1>,<Column 2>...<Column N> HAVING AGGREGATE_FUNCTION (<Expression>); mnkgj.k % ;g Sales uked,d Vscy esa fueufyf[kr MkVk gs % COMPANY AMOUNT SKP 5500 IBNS 4500 SKP ;fn bl Vscy ls dsoy mu Companies dk fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djuk gks] ftuds fy, AMOUNT dh lhkh osy;wt ds lewg (Group) dk ;ksx ls vf/d gs] rks ;g dk;z HAVING ds }kjk bl izdkj fd;k tk ldrk gs %

127 vkwjsdy iaqd'ku lkjka'k (Summary) MkVkcsl esa lafpr MkVk ij vdlj fd, tkus okys dk;ks± tsls& Values dks tksm+uk] vkslr (Average) dh x.kuk djuk] Values dks,d ls nwljs MkVk&Vkbi esa :ikarfjr (Convert) djuk] br;kfn dks ljy cukus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa fofhkuu iaqd'kuksa dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa bu iaqd'kuksa dk eq[; ykhk ;g gs fd fdlh dk;z dks djus ds fy, izr;sd ckj iaqd'ku ls lacaf/r leiw.kz dksm fy[kus dh vko';drk ugha gksrha dsoy iaqd'ku dk uke fy[kus rfkk vko';d osy;w iznku djus ek=k ls gh iaqd'ku fø;kfuor gks tkrk gs rfkk okafnr ifj.kke izkir gks tkrk gsa iaqd'ku esa Hksth tkus okyh bu MkVk osy;wt dks Arguments dgrs gsaa vkwjsdy ds,sls iaqd'ku] tks osy;w k ds,d lewg (set) ij dk;z djrs gsa] mugsa 'Group Functions' vfkok 'Aggregate Functions' dgk tkrk gsa ;s iaqd'ku fdlh Dosjh (query) esa iz;qdr Vscy dh iafdr;ksa ds leiw.kz lewg (Set) ds fy,,d Result Row iznku djrs gsaa AVG iaqd'ku fdlh dkwye dh osy;wt dk vkslr (Average) iznku (Return) djrk gsa MAX iaqd'ku fn, x, dkwye dh lhkh osy;wt esa ls lcls cm+h (Maximum) osy;w iznku djrk gsa SUM iaqd'ku fn, x, dkwye dh lhkh osy;wt dk ;ksxiqy (Sum) iznku djrk gsa vkwjsdy ds,sls iaqd'ku] tks dsoy,d gh osy;w ij dk;z djrs gsa] mugsa 'Scalar Functions' dgk tkrk gsa bugsa 'Single Row Functions' Hkh dgrs gsaa ;s Functions fdlh Dosjh esa iz;qdr Vscy dh izr;sd iafdr ds fy,,d ifj.kke izr;kofrzr (Return) djrs gsaa ABS iaqd'ku blds vkx;wzes.v esa fn, x, NUMBER dk fujis{k eku (Absolute value) izr;kofrzr (Return) djrk gsa POWER iaqd'ku,d la[;k ij nwljh la[;k dh?kkr dh x.kuk djrk gsa POWER iaqd'ku nks vkx;wzes.v ysrk gs] ftuesa ls izfke vkx;wzesav vk/kj (Base) rfkk f}rh; vkx;wzesav?kkr (Power) ds fy, gksrk gsa SQRT iaqd'ku fn, x, vkx;wzesav dk oxzewy (Square-Root) iznku djrk gsa EXP iaqd'ku 'e' ij ml la[;k dh?kkr izr;kofrzr (Return) djrk gs] tks la[;k vkx;wzesav ds :i esa nh xbz gsa (e dk eku & gksrk gsa) GREATEST iaqd'ku nh xbz lwph (List) esa ls lcls cm+h la[;k izr;ofrzr djrk gsa MOD iaqd'ku nks vkx;wzesav ysrk gs rfkk izfke vkx;wzesav dks f}rh; vkx;wzesav ls Hkkx nsus ij izkir 'ks"kiqy iznf'kzr djrk gsa FLOOR iaqd'ku fdlh nh xbz la[;k ls igys vkus okyh] mppre vfkok lerqy; (Equivalent) la[;k iznf'kzr djrk gsa 127

128 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy CEIL iaqd'ku fdlh nh xbz la[;k ds fy, mlls cm+h,d y?kqùke (Smallest) vfkok lerqy; la[;k iznf'kzr djrk gsa INITCAP iaqd'ku nh xbz flavªx ds izr;sd 'kcn dk izfke v{kj Upper Case esa ifjofrzr dj nsrk gsa vu; Characters Lower Case esa gsaa SUBSTR iaqd'ku fdlh nh xbz flavªx dk,d Hkkx (Sub-String) izr;kofrzr (Return) djrk gsa blesa rhu vkx;wzesav fn, tkrs gsaa buesa ls igyk vkx;wzesav og flavªx gksrh gs] ftldk dksbz Hkkx fudkyuk gsa nwljk vkx;wzesav flavªx ds ml Character dh la[;k gksrh gs] tgk ls flavªx dk Hkkx izkjehk djuk gsa rhljs vkx;wzesav ds }kjk ;g crk;k tkrk gs fd flavªx ls fdrus Characters ysuk gsa INSTR iaqd'ku fdlh nh xbz flavªx esa Sub-String dh flfkfr (location) n'kkzrk gsa TRANSLATE iaqd'ku ds }kjk fdlh flavªx esa o.kks± (Characters) ds,d Øe (Sequence) dks fdlh vu; Øe }kjk iqulfkkzfir (Replace) fd;k tk ldrk gsa LTRIM iaqd'ku ds }kjk fdlh flavªx ds ck;ha vksj ls Characters vfkok Spaces dks gvk;k tk ldrk gsa RTRIM iaqd'ku fdlh <set> esa fn, x, Character ls izkjahk djds mlds ckn flavªx esa vkus okys lhkh characters dks gvk nsrk gsa LPAD iaqd'ku fn, x, Character dks fdlh flavªx ds ck;ha vksj (Left) fof'k"v yeckbz rd tksm+ nsrk gsa RPAD iaqd'ku fn, x, Character dks fdlh flavªx ds nkfguh vksj,d fof'k"v yeckbz rd tksm+ nsrk gsa TO_NUMBER iaqd'ku] fdlh Character Vkbi dh osy;w dks NUMBER Vkbi es a ifjofrzr djrk gsa TO_CHAR iaqd'ku ds }kjk fdlh osy;w dks CHARACTER Vkbi esa ifjofrzr fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy esa 'DATE' Vkbi dk fmiqkwyv izk:i 'DD-MON-YY HH:MI:SS' gksrk gsa ADD_MONTHS iaqd'ku nks vkx;wzesavksa ij dk;z djrk gsa buesa ls igyk vkx;wzesav,d frffk (Date) rfkk nwljk vkx;wzesav ekg (Month) ds fy, dksbz la[;k gksrh gsa LAST_DAY iaqd'ku fn, x, ekg (Month) dk vafre fnu (Day) crkrk gsa NEXT_DAY iaqd'ku fdlh frffk ds ckn lirkg ds fdlh fnu ds fy, vxyh frffk iznf'kzr djrk gsa blesa nks arguments fn, tkrs gsa] ftuesa ls igyk vkx;wzesav dksbz DATE rfkk nwljk vkx;wzesav lirkg ds fdlh fnu dk uke gksrk gsa TO_DATE iaqd'ku ds }kjk CHAR Vkbi es a nh xbz fdlh osy;w dks DATE Vkbi es a ifjofrzr fd;k tkrk gsa bldh lgk;rk ls Values dks DATE ds fmiqkwyv izk:i ds vfrfjdr fdlh vu; izk:i es a Hkh fn;k tk ldrk gsa Vscy ds fdlh dkwye ds fjdkwmks± dks,d lewg esa j[kus ds fy, SQL esa 'GROUP BY' Clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn 'GROUP BY' ds }kjk izkir ifj.kkeksa dks vksj vf/d fiqyvj djus vfkok bu ifj.kkeksa ij dksbz vfrfjdr damh'ku yxkus dh vko';drk gks] rks blds fy, 'GROUP BY' ds lkfk 'HAVING' uked Clause dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 128

129 Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. COUNT (Expression) ;g iaqd'ku 'Expression' esa fy[ks x, dkwye dh lhkh iafdr;ksa dh la[;k iznku djrk gsa ifj.kke esa dsoy mu iafdr;ksa dh x.kuk dh tkrh gs] ftudh osy;w 'NULL' ugha gsa fluvsdl : COUNT (<Exprresion>) vkwjsdy iaqd'ku 2. POWER ;g iaqd'ku,d la[;k ij nwljh la[;k dh?kkr dh x.kuk djrk gsa POWER iaqd'ku nks vkx;wzes.v ysrk gs] ftuesa ls izfke vkx;wzesav vk/kj (Base) rfkk f}rh; vkx;wzesav?kkr (Power) ds fy, gksrk gsa fluvsdl : POWER (<base>,<power>) bl iaqd'ku esa f}rh; vkx;wzesav?kkr (Power),d Integer (iw.kk±d) la[;k gksuk vfuok;z gsa vu;fkk =kqfv lans'k iznf'kzr gksxka 3. TRIM ;g iaqd'ku LTRIM rfkk RTRIM nksuksa dk la;kstu (Combination) gksrk gsa blds }kjk fdlh fof'k"v character dks flavªx ds izkjehk vfkok var nksuksa vksj ls gvk;k tk ldrk gsa vh;kl (Exercise) 1- vkwjsdy iaqd'ku ds iz;ksx dk eq[; ykhk D;k gs \ iaqd'ku dk fluvsdl fyf[k;sa 2- vkwjsdy iaqd'ku fdrus izdkj ds gksrs gsa \ izr;sd izdkj ds nks&nks iaqd'kuksa ds uke fyf[k;sa 3-,xzhxsV iaqd'ku (Aggregate Functions) D;k gsa \ fdugha rhu Aggregate Functions ds iz;ksx ds fluvsdl rfkk mnkgj.k fyf[k;sa 4- fueufyf[kr xzqi iaqd'kuksa (Group Functions) dks muds fluvsdl rfkk mnkgj.k ds lkfk le>kb;s % (a) AVG (b) MIN (c) MAX (d) SUM 5- COUNT (Expression) rfkk COUNT(*) iaqd'ku esa varj dks,d mnkgj.k dh lgk;rk ls Li"V dhft;sa 6- Scalar Function fdls dgrs gsa \ buds fofhkuu izdkjksa ds uke crkb;sa 7- fueufyf[kr vadh; (Numeric) iaqd'kuksa dks fluvsdl rfkk mnkgj.k ds lkfk Li"V dhft;s % (a) POWER (b) SQRT (c) MOD (d) GREATEST (e) EXP 8- flavªx iaqd'ku (String Functions) fdu MkVk izdkjksa ds lkfk dk;z djrs gsa \ UPPER( ) rfkk INITCAP( ) ds chp varj dks Li"V dhft;sa 9- SUBSTR( ) ds iz;ksx dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 10- fdlh flavªx esa,d mi&flavªx (Sub-String) dh flfkfr Kkr djus dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs \ flavªx 'I LIKE ORACLE' esa o.kz 'L' dh nwljh miflfkfr (2nd Appearance) tkuus ds fy, iaqd'ku dks fdl izdkj fy[kk tk,xk\ 11- TRANSLATE iaqd'ku ds iz;ksx dks fluvsdl ds lkfk le>kb;sa flavªx 'SHORT' dks ifjofrzr djds 'SMART' djus ds fy;s TRANSLATE dks fdl izdkj fy[kk tk,xk \ 12- TRIM iaqd'ku ds iz;ksx dk fluvsdl fyf[k;s rfkk blds fofhkuu mnkgj.k nhft;sa 129

130 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 13- LENGTH iaqd'ku dh lgk;rk ls vkids College ds uke dh yackbz (Length) tkuus ds fy, SQL dfku fyf[k;sa 14- TO_NUMBER iaqd'ku ds iz;ksx dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 15- TO_CHAR dk iz;ksx fdrus izdkj ls fd;k tk ldrk gs \ izr;sd dk fluvsdl rfkk mnkgj.k nhft;sa 16- TO_DATE iaqd'ku ij laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;sa 17- fueufyf[kr ds iz;ksx dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;s % (a) GROUP BY Clause (b) HAVING Clause 130

131 9 tkwbu] lc&dosjh rfkk O;w (Joins, Sub-Queries & Views) tkwbu] lc&dosjh rfkk O;w bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % tkwbu ds izdkj INNER JOIN OUTER JOIN LEFT JOIN RIGHT JOIN CROSS JOIN SELF JOIN ^lc&dosjh* dk iz;ksx 'UNION' rfkk Clause 'INTERSECT' Clause MINUS Clause O;w dh vo/kj.kk O;w ds izdkj O;w dk iz;ksx 9.1 tkwbu (Joins) ge tkurs gsa fd MkVkcsl ds fdlh Vscy ls leiw.kz MkVk vfkok fdlh damh'ku ds vk/kj ij fof'k"v (Specific) MkVk iznf'kzr djus ds fy, 'SELECT' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa dhkh&dhkh fdlh tfvy (Complicated) Dosjh dk ifj.kke izkir djus ds fy,,d ls vf/d VscYl ls MkVk ysus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa blds fy, bu fofhkuu VscYl dks,d lkfk tksm+uk rfkk mugsa,d gh Entity ekudj dk;z dj ikuk lehko gksuk pkfg,a SQL esa blds fy, 'JOINS' dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Joins ds }kjk,d ls vf/d VscYl dks,d lkfk tksm+dj,d gh SQL dfku dh lgk;rk ls mudk MkVk izkir fd;k tk ldrk gsa Tables dks vkil esa tksm+us ds fy, muesa,sls Columns gksuk vko';d gs] ftudk MkVk&Vkbi rfkk size leku (same) gksa Tables dks,d nwljs ls tksm+us ds fy, lkeku;r% keys (Primary, Unique b-) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa PRIMARY KEY,slk dkwye gs] ftlesa izr;sd iafdr ds fy, dsoy vf}rh; (Unique) Values gksrh gsa vr% Joins esa bldk iz;ksx djus ls MkVk dh iqujko`fr (Repetition) ls cpk tk ldrk gsa 131

132 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy,d ls vf/d Tables dks vkil esa tksm+us ds fy, fueufyf[kr rhu izdkj ds Joins dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gs % (a) INNER JOINq (b) OUTER JOIN (c) CROSS JOIN bu lhkh dh ppkz bl Hkkx esa dh xbz gsa blds vfrfjdr fdlh Vscy dks Lo;a ds lkfk Hkh tksm+k tk ldrk gsa ;g dk;z 'SELF JOIN' ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bls vxys Hkkx esa le>k;k x;k gsas fofhkuu rkfydkvksa dks tksm+uk (Joining Multiple Tables (Equi Joins)),d ls vf/d Tables dks tksm+us ds fy, SQL esa buds Columns dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn nks Tables esa dkwye dk uke,d gh (Same) gs] rks bl flfkfr esa ;g le>uk dfbu gksrk gs fd dksu&lk dkwye fdl Vscy ls lacafèkr gsa vr% dkwye rfkk Vscy ds eè; laca/ dks Li"V djus ds fy, Columns dk lanhkz (Reference) <TableName> <ColumnName> ds }kjk fn;k tkrk gsa SQL esa,d ls vf/d Tables dks fueufyf[kr rhu Joins ds }kjk tksm+k tk ldrk gsa (a) Inner Join ;g SQL*PLUS esa lokzf/d iz;ksx dh tkus okyh tkwbu fof/ (Method) gsa vf/dka'k Systems esa bls fmiqkwyv TkkWbu dh rjg iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa INNER JOIN esa nks Tables ds Columns ds chp rqyuk dh tkrh gs] rfkk ifj.kke esa dsoy os Records iznf'kzr gksrs gsa] ftudk eku (values) nksuksa Tables esa,d gh (same) gksa vfkkzr~ Inner Join ds }kjk nks Tables ds Columns dh Common Values izkir dh tk ldrh gsa ;g dk;z 'ON' Clause ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % SELECT <Column 1>.<Column 2>,...<Column N> FROM <Table_Name_1> INNER JOIN <Table_Name_2> ON <Table_Name_1>,<Column_Name> = <Table Name 2>.<Column Name> [WHERE <Condition>] [ORDER BY <Column_1>,<Column_2>,...<Column N>]; mijksdr fluvsdl eas 'WHERE' rfkk 'ORDER BY' dk iz;ksx osdfyid gksrk gsa INNER JOIN esa nks Tables ds Columns ds chp rqyuk djus ds fy, 'Equivalence Operator' (=) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vr% INNER JOIN dks 'Equi Join' Hkh dgrs gsaa bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % ;fn gekjs ikl fueufyf[kr nks Tables gsa % Tables - 1 Employees Emp_ID E01 E02 E03 E04 Emp_Name Pandey Sunil Dubey Ajay Dubey Anand Singh Ashwin 132 Table - 2 Orders Prod_ID Prod_Name Emp_ID 234 Printer E Table E Chair E03

133 a a ge ;g ekus axs fd] 'EMPLOYEES' Vscy ds fy, 'EMP_ID' dks rfkk 'ORDERS' Vscy es 'Prod-ID' dkwye dks Primary Key ds :i es a ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa ;fn ges a Product dk uke rfkk mlds fy, Order nsus okys employee dk uke iznf'kzr djuk gks] rks blds fy, mijksdr nksuks Tables dks tksm+uk vko';d gsa ;g dk;z 'Emp_ID' dh lgk;rk ls fd;k tk ldrk gs D;ks afd ;g dkwye bu nksuks a Tables ds fy, Common gsa bls fueu mnkgj.k es a n'kkz;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % tkwbu] lc&dosjh rfkk O;w (b) Outer Join INNER JOIN dh gh rjg nks Tables ds Columns ds chp rqyuk djus ds fy, OUTER JOIN dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa 'INNER JOIN' ds }kjk nks Tables ls dsoy Common Records iznf'kzr gksrs gsaa ijurq 'OUTER JOIN' dh lgk;rk ls MkVk dk vf/d Lora=krk iwozd p;u fd;k tk ldrk gsa 'OUTER JOIN' fueufyf[kr izdkj dh gksrh gs % (i) Left Join Left Join dk iz;ksx djus ij nks Tables dh chp rqyuk djrs le; ck;ha (Left) vksj fy[ks x, Vscy dh lhkh Rows iznf'kzr gksrh gsa buesa,slh Rows Hkh lfeefyr gasa ftuds fy, nwljs Vscy esa dksbz Common Value ugha gsa ijurq nkfguh (Right) vksj fy[ks x, Vscy ls dsoy os Rows iznf'kzr dh tkrh gsa] ftuds fy, izfke Vscy esa dksbz feyku (Match) izkir gqvk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % mnkgj.k % SELECT <Column 1>,<Column 2>,...<Column N> FROM <Table Name 1> LEFT JOIN <Table Name 2> ON <Table_Name 1>.<Column_Name> = <Table_Name 2>.<Column_Name>; 133

134 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mijksdr mnkgj.k esa 'EMPLOYEES' Vscy dh lhkh Rows iznf'kzr gks jgh gsa D;ksafd bls 'SELECT' dfku esa 'LEFT JOIN' ds ck;ha (Left) vksj fy[kk x;k gsa ;fn Rows ds fy, dksbz feyku izkir ugha gksrk] rks mugsa NULL ekuk tkrk gsa (ii) Right Join Right Join fof/ (Method) Left Join ds foijhr dk;z djrh gsa Right Join es a] nkfguh vksj fy[ks x, Vscy dh lhkh Rows iznf'kzr dh tkrh gs] pkgs muds fy, ck;ha (Left) vksj ds Vscy es a dksbz feyku izkir gks vfkok u gksa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % mnkgj.k % SELECT <Column_1>,<Column_2>,...<Column_N> FROM <Table_Name_1> RIGHT JOIN <Table_Name_2> ON <Table_Name_1>.<Column_Name> = <Table_Name_2>.<Column_Name>; (c) Cross Join,d ls vf/d Tables dks tksm+us ds fy, 'Cross Join' dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g tkwbu nks Tables dk 'Cartesian product' iznf'kzr djrh gsa vfkkzr~ blesa ck;ha (Left) vksj fy[ks Vscy dh izr;sd iafdr dks nkfguh (Right) vksj fy[ks Vscy dh lhkh Rows ds lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) fd;k tkrk gsa dqn flfkfr;ksa esa bldk ifj.kke vr;f/ d tfvy (Complicated) gks ldrk gsa ijurq] mfpr ifjflfkfr;ksa esa ;g tkwbu vr;f/d mi;ksxh gksrh gsa bldk iz;ksx ml flfkfr esa fd;k tkrk gs] tc nks Tables dh iafdr;ksa rfkk LraHkksa ds chp lhkh lehko la;ksx (Possible Combinations) iznf'kzr djus gksaa fluvsdl : SELECT <Column_1>,<Column_2>,...<Column_N> FROM <Table_Name_1> CROSS JOIN <Table_Name_2>; mnkgj.k % ;fn gekjs ikl fueufyf[kr nks Tables gsa % Table - 1 Classes Sr_No Class_Name 1 BCA 2 BSC 3 MSC 134 Table - 2 Subjects Sr_No Sub_Name 1 Oracle 2 Java 3 C++ tc ;fn ;g Kkr djus dh vko';drk gks] fd Class_Name rfkk Sub_Name ds chp fdrus la;ksx (Combinations) cuk, tk ldrs gsa] rks blds fy, mijksdr nksuksa Tables ij Cross Join dk iz;ksx bl izdkj fd;k tk ldrk gs %

135 tkwbu] lc&dosjh rfkk O;w fdlh rkfydk dks Lo;a ls tksm+uk (Joining a Table to Itself (Self Join)) Equi-Joins ds }kjk,d ls vf/d fhkuu (Different) Tables dks,d&nwljs ds lkfk tksm+k tk ldrk gsa dqn ifjflfkfr;ksa esa,d Vscy dks Lo;a ls gh tksm+uk vko';d gks tkrk gsa ;g dk;z Hkh mlh izdkj gksrk gs] ftl izdkj nks fhkuu Tables dks tksm+us dk dk;z fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh Vscy dks Lo;a ds lkfk gh tksm+us dh ;g fof/ Self-Join dgykrh gsa fdlh Vscy dks Lo;a ds lkfk tksm+us ds fy, 'Self Join' dk iz;ksx djus ij 'FROM' Clause esa,d gh Vscy dk uke nks ckj fy[kus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa Vscy dks Lo;a ds lkfk tkwbu djus ds fy, eseksjh esa bldh nks izfr;k (Copies) fufezr djuk vfuok;z gsa ijurq 'FROM' Clause esa Vscy dk uke,d gh (Same) gksus ds dkj.k izfke uke dks f}rh; uke }kjk Over-Write dj fn;k tk,xka vr% rfkk eseksjh esa Vscy dh dsoy,d gh izfr fufezr gksxha bl flfkfr esa Joining lehko ugha gsa bl lel;k dk lek/ku djus ds fy, 'FROM' Clause esa nks ckj Vscy dk uke fy[krs le; nksuksa LFkkuksa ij Vscy uke ds lkfk nks fhkuu Alias (vlfkkbz uke) fy[ks tkrs gsaa nks fhkuu Alias ds dkj.k,d gh Vscy nks fhkuu&fhkuu eseksjh LFkkuksa (Memory Locations) ij fufezr gks tkrk gs rfkk vc bl Vscy dk Lo;a ds lkfk tksm+k tk ldrk gsa fluvsdl : SELECT<Table_Alias>.<Column_1>, <Table_Name>.<Column 2>..., <Table_Name>. <Column N> FROM <Table Name>AS<Alias 1>,<Table Name>AS<Alias 2> [WHERE <Table Alias 1. Column 1> = <Table Alias 2. Column 2>; mnkgj.k % 135

136 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 9.2 ^lc&dosjh* (Sub-Queries) dqn fof'k"v ifjflfkfr;ks a es a,d Vscy ls Records iznf'kzr djrs le; fdlh vu; Vscy ds Records ds vk/kj ij Conditions fy[kuk vko';d gksrk gsa vfkkzr~,d dfku ij fy[kh tk jgh damh'ku fdlh vu; dfku ij nh xbz Condition ij fuhkzj gksrh gsa,slh flfkfr es a,d Dosjh dfku ij damh'ku fy[krs le; blds vanj,d vu; Dosjh dfku fy[kk tkrk gsa bl izdkj fdlh,d SQL Dosjh ds vanj fy[kh xbz vu; SQL Dosjh dks 'SUB-QUERY' dgrs gs aa bugs a 'Nested Query' Hkh dgk tkrk gsa Sub-Query,d,slk SQL dfku gksrk gs] tks fdlh vu; SQL dfku dk gh,d Hkkx (Part) gsa ftl SQL dfku ds vanj Sub-Query dks fy[kk x;k gs] mls 'Parent Statement' dgk tkrk gsa Sub-Queries ds ifj.kke ls izkir iafdr;ksa dk iz;ksx 'Parent Statement }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa Sub-Queries ds }kjk eq[;r% fueufyf[kr dk;z fd, tk ldrs gsa % fdlh,d Vscy ds Records dks vu; Vscy esa j[kuka,d Vscy ds Records dks fdlh vu; Vscy }kjk Update djuka ^O;w* dk fuekz.k djuka 'SELECT', 'UPDATE' rfkk 'DELETE' dfkuksa ds lkfk fy[kh tkus okyh fofhkuu Clauses tsls& 'WHERE', 'HAVING', 'IN' br;kfn esa nh tk jgh Conditions ds fy, Values iznku djuka Sub-Queries dk lkeku; :i (General Form) fueufyf[kr gs % fluvsdl : SELECT <Column_1>,<Column_2>,...<Column_N> FROM <Table_Name_1> WHERE <Column_Name> IN(<Sub_Query>); mnkgj.k % ;fn gekjs ikl fueufyf[kr nks Tables gsa % Table - 1 Table - 2 Sales Order_No Client_No Orader_Date 024 C1 24-APR C2 06-JAN C3 01-JUN-09 Client Client_No Name Balance C1 SUNIL 5000 C2 ANURAG 3000 C3 VIKAS ;fn 'Sales' Vscy ls os lhkh Records iznf'kzr djuk gks] ftuds fy, 'Client' Vscy esa 'Balance' dkwy dh osy;w '6000' ls vf/d gs] rks blds fy, 'Sales' Vscy ij SELECT dfku fy[krs le; bldh WHERE Clause eas 'Client' Vscy ds 'Balance' dkwye dh osy;w ns[kus ds fy,,d Sub- Query fy[kus dh vko';drk gksxha ;g dk;z bl izdkj fd;k tk ldrk gs %

137 tkwbu] lc&dosjh rfkk O;w 'WHERE' Clause dh gh rjg Sub-Queries dk iz;ksx 'FROM' Clause ds lkfk Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa fdlh 'SELECT' dfku dh 'FROM' Clause esa Sub-Query fy[kus dh bl vko/kj.kk dks 'Inline view' dgk tkrk gsa fdlh 'SELECT' dfku dh 'FROM' Clause esa fy[kh xbz ;g Sub- Query ml fof'k"v dfku ds fy, MkVk ds Ïksr (Data-Source) dks ifjhkkf"kr djrh gsa 9.3 Union, Intersect & Minus Clauses,d ls vf/d Queries dks,d lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) djus rfkk muds vkmviqv dks iafdr;ksa,oa LraHkksa ds,d lewg (Set) ds :i eas iznf'kzr djus ds fy, Joins rfkk Sub-queries ds vfrfjdr dqn vu; Clauses dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % (a) 'UNION' Clause 'UNION' Clause ds }kjk,d ls vf/d Queries dks,d lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g Clause bu fofhkuu Queries ls izkir ifj.kkeks a dks iafdr;ks a,oa LraHkks a ds,d gh lewg (Set) ds :i es a iznf'kzr djrh gsa 'UNION' ds ifj.kke (Result) es a dsoy 'DISTINCT' Records gh lfeefyr gksrs gs aa vfkkzr~ ;fn nks queries dks iz;ksx fd;k tk jgk gs rfkk bues a dqn nksgjs (Duplicate) Records gs a] rks bu Records dh dsoy,d gh izfr (Copy) ifj.kke es a fn[kkbz nsxha 'UNION' ds vkmviqv dks fueufyf[kr fp=k es a n'kkz;k x;k gs % 'UNION' Clause dk iz;ksx djrs le; fueufyf[kr ckrksa dk è;ku j[kuk vko';d gksrk gs % Dosjh esa iz;ksx fd, tk jgs lhkh 'SELECT' dfku esa fy[ks x, Columns dh la[;k rfkk mudk MkVk&Vkbi leku (Identical) gksuk vfuok;z gksrk gsa nksgjs (Duplicate) Records dh tkap djrs le; 'NULL' Values dks Hkh fu:fir (Consider) fd;k tkrk gsa fmiqkwyv :i ls vkmviqv 'SELECT' Clause ds izfke dkwye ds vuqlkj vkjksgh (Ascending) Øe es a Sort fd;k tkrk gsa 137

138 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy ;fn 'IN' vkwijsvj dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k x;k gs] rks bldh izkfkfedrk (Priority) 'UNION' ls vf/d gksrh gsa 'UNION' Clause dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % <SQL QUERY 1> UNION <SQL QUERY 2> mnkgj.k % ;fn gekjs ikl fueufyf[kr nks Tables gsa % Table - 1: Emp_Delhi ID Name 1 Amit Desai 2 Maya Joshi 3 Sunil Pandey 4 Ajay Dubey 5 Akshay Kumar 6 Nidhi Patel Table - 2 : Emp_Delhi ID Name 1 Abhijeet Bapal 2 Ajay Singh 3 Kristina 4 Nidhi Patel 5 Sumant ;fn Delhi rfkk Mumbai, nksuksa Branches ds Employees dk uke,d lkfk iznf'kzr djuk gks] rks ;g dk;z mijksdr nksuksa Tables ij fy[ks x, 'SELECT' dfkuksa ds lkfk 'UNION' Clause fy[kdj bl izdkj fd;k tk ldrk gs% 138

139 a mijksdr nksuksa Tables ds 'NAME' dkwye esa 'Nidhi Patel' uke okys Records miflfkr gsaa nksuksa Queries ds ifj.kke esa Common Records feyus ij 'UNION' ds }kjk mudh dsoy,d gh izfr (Copy) iznf'kzr dh tkrh gsa vr% vkmviqv esa ;g fjdkmz,d ckj gh fn[kkbz ns jgk gs] ijurq] bl ckr dh Hkh lahkkouk gs fd ;s nks fhkuu O;fDr (Persons) gkas] ftudk uke,d gh (Same) gsa,slh flfkfr esa bu nkuksa Records dks iznf'kzr fd;k tkuk vko';d gksxka ;g dk;z UNION ALL }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa (b) UNION ALL 'UNION' Clause dh gh rjg 'UNION ALL' dk iz;ksx Hkh nks Queries dks la;ksftr (Combine) djus ds fy, fd;k tk ldrk gsa bu nksuksa ds chp varj dsoy bruk gs fd 'UNION' ds }kjk nksgjs (Duplicate) Records dh dsoy,d izfr (Copy) iznf'kzr dh tkrh gs] tcfd 'UNION ALL' lhkh Records dks iznf'kzr djrk gsa tkwbu] lc&dosjh rfkk O;w Syntax : <SQL QUERY 1> UNION ALL <SQL QUERY 2> mnkgj.k % 'UNION' Clause dh lhek, (Limitations of 'UNION' Clause) (1) 'UNION' Clause dk iz;ksx Sub-Queries esa ugha fd;k tk ldrka (2) 'UNION' Clause esa Aggregate Functions ugha gks ldrsa (c) 'INTERSECT' Clause nks Queries ls izkir ifj.kkeksa dks la;ksftr (Combine) djus ds fy, 'INTERSECT' Clause dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g Clause dsoy mu Records dks gh iznf'kzr djrh gs] tks nksuksa Queries ls izkir ifj.kkeksa (Results) esa lfeefyr gksrs gsaa vfkkzr~ Intersect ds }kjk nksuksa Queries ls dsoy Common Records gh iznf'kzr fd, tkrs gsaa 'INTERSECT' ds vkmviqv dks fueufyf[kr fp=k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- JOINS dk D;k dk;z gksrk gs \ 2- LEFT JOIN ds ckjs es vki D;k tkurs gsa \ 139

140 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 'INTERSECT' Clause dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % Syntax : <SQL QUERY 1> INTERSECT <SQL QUERY 2> 'INTERSECT' ds }kjk dsoy os Records iznf'kzr gksaxs] tks nksuksa Queries ds ifj.kkeksa esa fueufyf[kr gsa bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % (d) 'MINUS' Clause,d ls vf/d Queries dks,d lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) djus ds fy, 'UNION' rfkk 'INTERSECT' ds vfrfjdr 'MINUS' Clause Hkh miyc/ gsa nks Queries ds chp 'MINUS' Clause dk iz;ksx djus ij blds }kjk dsoy os Records iznf'kzr fd, tkrs gsa] tks QUERY - 1 esa miflfkr gsa] ijurq] QUERY-2 esa miflfkr ugha gsaa vfkkzr~ 'MINUS' ds }kjk QUERY - 2 ds lhkh Records,oa nksuksa Queries esa miflfkr Common Records dks fiqyvj dj fn;k tkrk gsa ;s Records 'MINUS' Clause ds vkmviqv esa lfeefyr ugha fd, tkrsa 140

141 'MINUS' Clause dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % fluvsdl : <SQL QUERY _1> MINUS <SQL QUERY_2> mnkgj.k % tkwbu] lc&dosjh rfkk O;w 9.4 O;w (Views) fdlh Vscy dk fuekz.k djus,oa mlesa MkVk j[kus ds ckn bl MkVk dks lqjf{kr j[kuk Hkh vr;ar egroiw.kz dk;z gsa bl ckr dk è;ku j[kuk vr;ar vko';d gs fd dksbz ;wtj fdlh Hkh Vscy ds dsoy mu Columns dks gh ns[k vfkok ifjofrzr dj lds] ftuds fy, og ;wtj vf/ñr (Authorized) gsa vfkkzr~ izr;sd ;wtj vius vf/dkj (Authority) ds vk/kj ij gh Vscy ds fdlh Hkkx dks vfkok leiw.kz Vscy dks izkir,oa ifjofrzr dj ldsa MkVk dh lqj{kk (Security) dks lqfuf'pr djus dk,d mik; ;g gks ldrk gs fd ;wtj ds vf/dkjksa ds vuqlkj,d gh Vscy dks izr;sd ;wtj ds fy, fhkuu&fhkuu Columns ds lkfk ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk,a vfkkzr~ ;wtj ftu Columns dk MkVk izkir vfkok ifjofrzr djus ds fy;s vf/ñr gs] dsoy mu Columns ds lkfk og Vscy ml fof'k"v ;wtj ds fy, ifjhkkf"kr (Define) dj fn;k tk,a,slk djus ij MkVk dh lqj{kk dks rks lqfuf'pr fd;k tk ldrk gs] ijurq] blds fy,,d gh Vscy dks ckj&ckj ifjhkkf"kr djus dh vko';drk gksxh] ftlls MkVk dk nksgjko (Redundancy) c<+ tk,xka vr% ;g fof/ (Method) dk;z{kerk (Efficient) ugha gsa MkVk dh lqj{kk,ao blds nksgjko (Redundancy) dks jksdus dh lel;k dk lek/ku djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'View' uked,d vkwctsdv dk fuekz.k djus dh lqfo/k iznku dh xbz gsa 'VIEW' 'kcn dk vfkz gs n`'; vfkok n`f"va vr% O;w dh dyiuk,d,sls vkwctsdv ds :i esa dh tk ldrh gs] tks gesa,d gh Vscy dks fhkuu&fhkuu n`';ksa ds :i esa ns[kus dh lqfo/k vfkok n`f"v iznku djrk gsa vfkkzr~ O;w (view) ds }kjk,d gh Vscy dks fhkuu&fhkuu izdkj ls ns[kk tk ldrk gsa,d O;w (VIEW) dks fdlh iwoz&fufezr Vscy ds vk/kj ij SELECT dfku ds }kjk ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa View dk fuekz.k djrs le; Vscy ds ftu Columns dks pquk x;k gs] dsoy ogh Columns O;w ds }kjk ns[ks tk ldrs gsaa vu; lhkh Columns vn`'; (Hidden) gh jgrs gsaa bl izdkj Vscy ds MkVk dks vuf/ñr (Unauthorized) iz;ksx ls lqjf{kr j[kk tk ldrk gsa 141

142 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy O;w dk,d vu; ykhk ;g gs fd vkwjsdy eseksjh esa O;w dks dsoy bldh ifjhkk"kk ds :i esa lafpr fd;k tkrk gsa blesa dksbz MkVk ugha gksrka vr% O;w ds fy, cgqr vf/d eseksjh dh vko';drk ugha gksrha vkwjsdy batu fdlh O;w dks Hkh,d Vscy dh rjg gh ekurk gsa vr% O;w ij Hkh Queries (SELECT, INSERT br;kfn) dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa fdlh Dosjh esa O;w dk iz;ksx djus ij bldh ifjhkk"kk ds vuqlkj lacaf/r Vscy ls MkVk izkir djds ml MkVk dks O;w ds lkfk tksm+ fn;k tkrk gsa O;w ds }kjk Queries dks fø;kfuor djus ij Vscy dh rqyuk esa vfèkd le; yxrk gsa D;kafd blds fy, O;w dh ifjhkk"kk dks i<+us] lacaf/r Vscy dks <wa<us O;w dh ifjhkk"kk ds vk/kj ij MkVk izkir djus rfkk ml MkVk dks O;w ds lkfk tksm+us br;kfn tsls vfrfjdr (Additional) dk;ks± dh vko';drk gksrh gsa Views nks izdkj ds gks ldrs gsa % (1) Read-Only dqn Views dk iz;ksx 'Base Table' ls MkVk dks dsoy iznf'kzr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj ds Views dks 'Read-Only Views dgrs gasa (2) Updatable dqn Views ds }kjk MkVk dks ifjofrzr (Insert, Update, Delete) Hkh fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj ds Views dks 'Updatable' Views dgk tkrk gsa O;w dk fuekz.k (Creating a View) vkwjsdy batu fdlh O;w dks Hkh,d Vscy dh rjg gh ekurk gsa vr% Tables ds leku gh fdlh O;w dks Hkh 'CREATE' dfku ds }kjk ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa ijurq] O;w lnso gh fdlh fof'k"v Base Table ds vk/kj ij cuk;k tkrk gsa vr% O;w dks ifjhkkf"kr djrs le; 'CREATE' dfku ds lkfk 'SELECT' dfku dh lgk;rk ls Base Table ds Columns dk o.kzu djuk vko';d gsa O;w dks ifjhkkf"kr djus dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % Syntax : CREATE VIEW <View_Name> AS SELECT <Column 1>,<Column 2>,...<Column N> FROM <Table Name> [WHERE <Column Name> = <Expression> GROUP BY <Column Name> HAVING <Condition>]; mijksdr dfku esa 'WHERE' 'GROUP BY' rfkk 'HAVING' Clauses dk iz;ksx osdfyid gsa vfkkzr~ bugsa vko';drk ds vuqlkj fy[kk vfkok NksM+k tk ldrk gsa mnkgj.k % ;fn gekjs ikl Patients uked,d Vscy gs] ftldh lajpuk bl izdkj gs % Structure of 'Patients' Table Column Name Data Typ Size Attribute S-No Varchar 2 5 Primary key Name Varchar 2 20 Not NULL Disease Varchar 2 15 Address Varchar vc ;fn mijksdr Vscy ls dsoy 'Name' rfkk 'Disease' Columns dks iznf'kzr djus okyk,d O;w cukuk gks] rks ;g dk;z bl izdkj fd;k tk ldrk gs % CREATE VIEW Patient_Data AS SELECT Name, Disease FROM Patients; mijksdr dfku ds }kjk patient_data uked,d O;w ifjhkkf"kr gks tk,xk] ftlesa 'Patients' Vscy ds nks Columns-'NAME' rfkk 'Disease' lfeefyr gksaxsa

143 9.4.2 Vscy ds LraHkksa dk uke O;w esa ifjofrzr djuk (Renaming the columns in a View) fdlh O;w dk fuekz.k djrs le; blesa lfeefyr fd, tk jgs Columns dk uke ifjofrzr Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % CREATE VIEW <View_Name> AS SELECT <Column_1> "<New_Column_Name_1>", <Column_2> "New_Column_Name_2>,...<Column_N> "<New_Column_Name-N> FROM <Table_Name>; mnkgj.k % tkwbu] lc&dosjh rfkk O;w mijksdr dfku ds }kjk 'Patient_Data' uked,d O;w cuk;k tk jgk gs] ftles a 'Patients' Vscy ds 'Name' dkwye dk uke ifjofrzr djds "Patient_Name" fd;k x;k gsa ;gk 'Disease' dkwye ds uke es a dksbz ifjorzu ugha gqvk gsa O;w ds }kjk MkVk dk p;u (Selecting Data From a View) fdlh O;w dk fuekz.k gks tkus ij bldk MkVk izkir djus ds fy, Hkh Vscy dh gh rjg 'SELECT' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blesa varj dsoy bruk gs fd 'SELECT' dfku dh 'FROM' Clause esa <Table_Name> ds LFkku ij <View_Name> fy[kk tkrk gsa fluvsdl : SELECT <Column_1>,<Column_2>... FROM <View_Name>; O;w dk MkVk iznf'kzr djus ds fy, iz;qdr 'SELECT' dfku esa 'WHERE', 'ORDER BY' br;kfn lhkh Clauses dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa mnkgj.k % 'Patients' Vscy ds vk/kj ij fufezr 'Patient_Data' uked O;w ds }kjk MkVk ds bl izdkj izkir fd;k tk ldrk gs % mijksdr dfku ds }kjk 'Patients' Vscy ds Name rfkk 'Disease' Columns dk MkVk iznf'kzr gksxk D;ksafd 'Patient_Data' O;w dks bl Vscy ds vk/kj ij ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gsa Vscy ds vu; Columns dk MkVk vn`'; (Hidden) jgsxk rfkk mls bl O;w dh lgk;rk ls dhkh Hkh ns[kk ugha tk ldrka Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 3- UNION,oa Union all ds chp D;k vurj gksrk gs \ 4- VIEWS ds nks çdkj dks le>kb,a 143

144 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy O;w ds }kjk MkVk dks v ru djuk (Updating Data from a View) fdlh Base Table ds MkVk dks iznf'kzr djus ds vfrfjdr Views ds }kjk Vscy ds MkVk dks ifjofrzr (UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE) Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa MkVk esa ifjorzu djus ds fy, iz;qdr Views dks Updatable Views dgk tkrk gsa tc Hkh fdlh INSERT, UPDATE vfkok DELETE dfku esa <Table_Name> ds LFkku ij <View Name> fy[kk tkrk gs] rks ifjorzu Lor% gh (Automatically) lacaf/r Vscy ij Hkst fn, tkrs gsaa fdlh O;w dks Updatable cukus ds fy, fueufyf[kr nks ckrksa dk è;ku j[kuk egroiw.kz gs % (i) ;fn O;w ds }kjk MkVk dks INSERT djuk gs] rks Vscy ds lhkh 'PRIMARY KEY' Columns,oa 'NOT NULL' Columns dks O;w dh ifjhkk"kk (Definition) esa lfeefyr djuk vfuok;z gsa (ii) ;fn O;w dh ifjhkk"kk esa 'PRIMARY KEY' rfkk 'NOT NULL' Columns lfeefyr ugha gs] rks O;w dk iz;ksx 'UPDATE',oa 'DELETE' dfkuksa esa fd;k tk ldrk gsa (i) INSERT ;fn 'patients' Vscy ds vk/kj ij 'Patients_Data' uked,d O;w cuk;k x;k gsa bl O;w dh lgk;rk ls O;w esa MkVk INSERT djus dk dk;z fueufyf[kr dfku ds }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gs % mnkgj.k % (ii) UPDATE fdlh O;w dh lgk;rk ls MkVk dks UPDATE djus ds fy, 'UPDATE' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bls fueu mnkgj.k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % (iii)delete fdlh O;w dh lgk;rk ls MkVk dks fevkus (Deletion) dk dk;z 'DELETE' dfku }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % 144 bl izdkj Updateble Views ds }kjk fdlh Vscy ds MkVk dks ljyrkiwozd 'INSERT', 'UPDATE' rfkk 'DELETE' fd;k tk ldrk gsa

145 Views dks ifjhkkf"kr (Define) djrs le;,d ls vf/d Vscy dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrs gsaa ;g dk;z O;w dh ifjhkk"kk esa Joins ds }kjk bu Tables dks tksm+dj fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj fufezr (Reate) fd, x, Views dk iz;ksx INSERT dfku ds lkfk ^ugha* fd;k tk ldrka UPDATE rfkk DELETE dfkuksa esa budk iz;ksx Vscy ds vkilh lecu/ (Relation) ij fuhkzj gksrk gsa ;fn O;w dh ifjhkk"kk eas iz;qdr Tables fdlh Reference Clause ds }kjk fufezr fd, x, Fks] vfkkzr~ ;fn ;s Tables,d nwljs ls lacaf/r (Related) gsa] rks O;w ds }kjk bu ij 'UPDATE' vfkok 'DELETE' dk;z (Operations) fd, tk ldrs gsaa ijurq] ;s dk;z dsoy Detail Table' dks izhkkfor djrs gsaa 'Master Table' lnso gh vizhkkfor jgrk gsa ;fn O;w dks ifjhkkf"kr djrs le; iz;qdr Tables ds chp dksbz laca/ (Relation) ugha gs] rks bl izdkj ds Views dk iz;ksx 'UPDATE' vfkok 'DELETE' dfkuksa esa ^ugha* fd;k tk ldrka bldk vfkz ;g gs fd,d ls vfèkd vlac¼ (Unrelated) Tables ds }kjk ifjhkkf"kr Views iw.kzr% 'Readonly' gksrs gsaa Limitations of Updatable Views Updatable views esa fueufyf[kr rroksa (Elements) dks lfeefyr ugha fd;k tk ldrk % tkwbu] lc&dosjh rfkk O;w (a) Aggregate Functions. (b) DISTINCT, GROUP BY rfkk HAVING Clauses. (c) Sub-queries. (d) UNION, INTERSECT rfkk MINUS Clauses. (e) Constants, Strings rfkk Expressions. blds vfrfjdr ;fn,d O;w dks fdlh vu; O;w ds }kjk ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gs] rks nwljk O;w Updatable gksuk pkfg,a O;w dk gvkuk Destroying a view fdlh O;w dks MkVkcsl ls gvkus (Removing) ds fy, 'DROP VIEW' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % Syntax : mnkgj.k % DROP VIEW <View_Name>; mijksdr dfkuksa ds }kjk Patients_Data uked O;w dks MkVkcsl ls iw.kzr% gvk fn;k tk,xk,oa blds }kjk iz;ksx dh tk jgh eseksjh Hkh fjdr (Free) gks tk,xha 145

146 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 146 lkjka'k (Summary) dhkh&dhkh fdlh tfvy (Complicated) Dosjh dk ifj.kke izkir djus ds fy,,d ls vf/ d VscYl ls MkVk ysus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa blds fy, bu fofhkuu VscYl dks,d lkfk tksm+uk rfkk mugsa,d gh Entity ekudj dk;z dj ikuk lehko gksuk pkfg,a SQL esa blds fy, 'JOINS' dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Joins ds }kjk,d ls vf/d VscYl dks,d lkfk tksm+dj,d gh SQL dfku dh lgk;rk ls mudk MkVk izkir fd;k tk ldrk gsa Tables dks vkil esa tksm+us ds fy, muesa,sls Columns gksuk vko';d gs] ftudk MkVk&Vkbi rfkk size leku (same) gksa,d ls vf/d Tables dks tksm+us ds fy, SQL esa buds Columns dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn nks Tables esa dkwye dk uke,d gh (Same) gs] rks bl flfkfr esa ;g le>uk dfbu gksrk gs fd dksu&lk dkwye fdl Vscy ls lacafèkr gsa vr% dkwye rfkk Vscy ds eè; laca/ dks Li"V djus ds fy, Columns dk lanhkz (Reference) <TableName> <ColumnName> ds }kjk fn;k tkrk gsa INNER JOIN esa nks Tables ds Columns ds chp rqyuk dh tkrh gs] rfkk ifj.kke esa dsoy os Records iznf'kzr gksrs gsa] ftudk eku (values) nksuksa Tables esa,d gh (same) gksa vfkkzr~ Inner Join ds }kjk nks Tables ds Columns dh Common Values izkir dh tk ldrh gsa ;g dk;z 'ON' Clause ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa Left Join dk iz;ksx djus ij nks Tables dh chp rqyuk djrs le; ck;ha (Left) vksj fy[ks x, Vscy dh lhkh Rows iznf'kzr gksrh gsa buesa,slh Rows Hkh lfeefyr gasa ftuds fy, nwljs Vscy esa dksbz Common Value ugha gsa ijurq nkfguh (Right) vksj fy[ks x, Vscy ls dsoy os Rows iznf'kzr dh tkrh gsa] ftuds fy, izfke Vscy esa dksbz feyku (Match) izkir gqvk gsa Right Join fof/ (Method) Left Join ds foijhr dk;z djrh gsa Right Join esa] nkfguh vksj fy[ks x, Vscy dh lhkh Rows iznf'kzr dh tkrh gs] pkgs muds fy, ck;ha (Left) vksj ds Vscy esa dksbz feyku izkir gks vfkok u gksa,d ls vf/d Tables dks tksm+us ds fy, 'Cross Join' dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g tkwbu nks Tables dk 'Cartesian product' iznf'kzr djrh gsa vfkkzr~ blesa ck;ha (Left) vksj fy[ks Vscy dh izr;sd iafdr dks nkfguh (Right) vksj fy[ks Vscy dh lhkh Rows ds lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh Vscy dks Lo;a ds lkfk gh tksm+us dh ;g fof/ Self-Join dgykrh gsa fdlh Vscy dks Lo;a ds lkfk tksm+us ds fy, 'Self Join' dk iz;ksx djus ij 'FROM' Clause esa,d gh Vscy dk uke nks ckj fy[kus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa Vscy dks Lo;a ds lkfk tkwbu djus ds fy, eseksjh esa bldh nks izfr;k (Copies) fufezr djuk vfuok;z gsa ijurq 'FROM' Clause esa Vscy dk uke,d gh (Same) gksus ds dkj.k izfke uke dks f}rh; uke }kjk Over- Write dj fn;k tk,xka vr% rfkk eseksjh esa Vscy dh dsoy,d gh izfr fufezr gksxha bl flfkfr esa Joining lehko ugha gsa bl lel;k dk lek/ku djus ds fy, 'FROM' Clause esa nks ckj Vscy dk uke fy[krs le; nksuksa LFkkuksa ij Vscy uke ds lkfk nks fhkuu Alias (vlfkkbz uke) fy[ks tkrs gsaa fdlh,d SQL Dosjh ds vanj fy[kh xbz vu; SQL Dosjh dks 'SUB-QUERY' dgrs gsaa bugsa 'Nested Query' Hkh dgk tkrk gsa Sub-Query,d,slk SQL dfku gksrk gs] tks fdlh vu; SQL dfku dk gh,d Hkkx (Part) gsa ftl SQL dfku ds vanj Sub-Query dks fy[kk x;k gs] mls 'Parent Statement' dgk

147 tkrk gsa Sub-Queries ds ifj.kke ls izkir iafdr;ksa dk iz;ksx 'Parent Statement }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa 'UNION' Clause ds }kjk,d ls vf/d Queries dks,d lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g Clause bu fofhkuu Queries ls izkir ifj.kkeks a dks iafdr;ks a,oa LraHkks a ds,d gh lewg (Set) ds :i es a iznf'kzr djrh gsa 'UNION' ds ifj.kke (Result) es a dsoy 'DISTINCT' Records gh lfeefyr gksrs gs aa 'UNION' ds }kjk nksgjs (Duplicate) Records dh dsoy,d izfr (Copy) iznf'kzr dh tkrh gs] tcfd 'UNION ALL' lhkh Records dks iznf'kzr djrk gsa Intersect ds }kjk nksuksa Queries ls dsoy Common Records gh iznf'kzr fd, tkrs gsaa nks Queries ds chp 'MINUS' Clause dk iz;ksx djus ij blds }kjk dsoy os Records iznf'kzr fd, tkrs gsa] tks QUERY - 1 esa miflfkr gsa] ijurq] QUERY-2 esa miflfkr ugha gsaa vfkkzr~ 'MINUS' ds }kjk QUERY - 2 ds lhkh Records,oa nksuksa Queries esa miflfkr Common Records dks fiqyvj dj fn;k tkrk gsa O;w dh dyiuk,d,sls vkwctsdv ds :i esa dh tk ldrh gs] tks gesa,d gh Vscy dks fhkuu&fhkuu n`';ksa ds :i esa ns[kus dh lqfo/k vfkok n`f"v iznku djrk gsa vfkkzr~ O;w (view) ds }kjk,d gh Vscy dks fhkuu&fhkuu izdkj ls ns[kk tk ldrk gsa,d O;w (VIEW) dks fdlh iwoz&fufezr Vscy ds vk/kj ij SELECT dfku ds }kjk ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa View dk fuekz.k djrs le; Vscy ds ftu Columns dks pquk x;k gs] dsoy ogh Columns O;w ds }kjk ns[ks tk ldrs gsaa dqn Views dk iz;ksx 'Base Table' ls MkVk dks dsoy iznf'kzr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj ds Views dks 'Read-Only Views dgrs gasa dqn Views ds }kjk MkVk dks ifjofrzr (Insert, Update, Delete) Hkh fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj ds Views dks 'Updatable' Views dgk tkrk gsa fdlh O;w dks MkVkcsl ls gvkus (Removing) ds fy, 'DROP VIEW' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. Joins ds }kjk,d ls vf/d VscYl dks,d lkfk tksm+dj,d gh SQL dfku dh lgk;rk ls mudk MkVk izkir fd;k tk ldrk gsa Tables dks vkil esa tksm+us ds fy, muesa,sls Columns gksuk vko';d gs] ftudk MkVk&Vkbi rfkk size leku (same) gksa 2. Left Join dk iz;ksx djus ij nks Tables dh chp rqyuk djrs le; ck;ha (Left) vksj fy[ks x, Vscy dh lhkh Rows iznf'kzr gksrh gsa buesa,slh Rows Hkh lfeefyr gasa ftuds fy, nwljs Vscy esa dksbz Common Value ugha gsa ijurq nkfguh (Right) vksj fy[ks x, Vscy ls dsoy os Rows iznf'kzr dh tkrh gsa] ftuds fy, izfke Vscy esa dksbz feyku (Match) izkir gqvk gsa 3. 'UNION' Clause dh gh rjg 'UNION ALL' dk iz;ksx Hkh nks Queries dks la;ksftr (Combine) djus ds fy, fd;k tk ldrk gsa bu nksuksa ds chp varj dsoy bruk gs fd 'UNION' ds }kjk nksgjs (Duplicate) Records dh dsoy,d izfr (Copy) iznf'kzr dh tkrh gs] tcfd 'UNION ALL' lhkh Records dks iznf'kzr djrk gsa Syntax : <SQL QUERY 1> UNION ALL <SQL QUERY 2> tkwbu] lc&dosjh rfkk O;w 147

148 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 4. Views nks izdkj ds gks ldrs gsa % (1) Read-Only dqn Views dk iz;ksx 'Base Table' ls MkVk dks dsoy iznf'kzr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj ds Views dks 'Read-Only Views dgrs gasa (2) Updatable dqn Views ds }kjk MkVk dks ifjofrzr (Insert, Update, Delete) Hkh fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj ds Views dks 'Updatable' Views dgk tkrk gsa vh;kl (Exercise) 1- JOINS dh vko';drk D;ksa gksrh gs \ Joins ds fofhkuu izdkj D;k gs \ 2- Inner Join ds iz;ksx dks,d mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>kb;sa 3- Outer Join fdrus izdkj dh gksrh gs \ 'LEFT' rfkk 'RIGHT' Join esa D;k varj gs \ 4- LEFT Join rfkk RIGHT Join ds chp varj dks,d mnkgj.k dh lgk;rk ls Li"V dhft;sa 5- SELF Join ds fy;s Vscy,d gh Vscy ds nks 'Alias' dh vko';drk D;ksa gksrh gs \,d mnkgj.k fyf[k;sa 6- 'Sub-Query' fdls dgrs gs a \ Sub Query ds }kjk D;k dk;z fd;s tk ldrs gsa \ 7- 'Sub-Query' dk fluvsdl fyf[k;s rfkk,d mnkgj.k nhft;sa 8- 'UNION' rfkk 'UNION ALL' ds chp varj Li"V dhft;sa 9- nks rkfydkvksa (Tables) ds fjdkwmz ns[kus ds fy;s 'UNION',oa 'INTERESECT' ls izkir ifj.kkeksa ds vk/kj ij 'UNION' rfkk 'INTERSECT' ds chp varj Li"V dhft;sa 10- 'MINUS' Clause dks la{ksi esa le>kb;sa 11- O;w (View) ls vki D;k le>rs gsa \ O;w ds izdkj fyf[k;sa 12- 'STUDENTS' uked Vscy ds vk/kj ij 'RESULTS' uked,d O;w ifjhkkf"kr dhft;s] ftlesa 'STUDENTS' Vscy ds dsoy 'NAME' rfkk 'PERCENT' djuk gksa bl O;w dh lgk;rk ls fueufyf[kr dk;ksza ds fy;s SQL dfku fyf[k;s % (a) 'STUDENTS' Vscy ds lhkh fjdkwmz iznf'kzr djuka (b) ftu fo kffkz;ksa ds 'MARKS' dkwye dk eku 75 ls vf/d gks] muds 'MARKS' dkwye dh orzeku osy;w esa 10 tksm+uka (c) ftu fo kffkz;ksa ds 'MARKS' dkwye dk eku '40' ls de gks] muds fjdkwmz fevkuka (è;ku jgs] Vscy ds 'MARKS' dkwye dk uke O;w esa 'PERCENT' gsa) 13- 'Updatable View' ls vki D;k le>rs gsa \ bugsa ifjhkkf"kr djrs le; fdu ckrksa dk è;ku j[kuk egroiw.kz gs \ 14-,d ls vf/d rkfydkvksa ds vk/kj ij fufezr 'Updatable Views' ds iz;ksx dks 'INSERT', 'UPDATE' rfkk 'DELETE' ds lanhkz esa Li"V dhft;sa 'Updatable View' esa fdu rroksa dks lfeefyr ugha fd;k tk ldrk \ 15- fdlh O;w dks eseksjh ls iw.kzr% gvkus (Dropping) dk fluvsdl fyf[k;s,oa,d mnkgj.k nhft;sa 148

149 10 ;wtj vdkmuv O;oLFkkiu,oa bumsfdlax dh voèkkj.kk (User Accounts Management & Indexing) ;wtj vdkmuv O;oLFkkiu,oa bumsfdlax dh vo/kj.kk bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % ;wtj vdkmuv dk fuekz.k ;wtj vdkmuv O;oLFkkiu izkf/dkj iznku djuk izkf/dkj gvkuk iklomz ifjofrzr djuk ;wtj vkdkmuv can djuk bumsdl dh vo/kj.kk bumsdl dk fuekz.k bumsdl ds izdkj bumsdl dk iz;ksx bumsdl fevkuk 10.1 ;wtj vdkmuv dk fuekz.k,oa O;oLFkkiu (Creating and Managing User Accounts) izr;sd O;olk;] fohkkx vfkok dk;z&{ks=k ds fy, MkVk lokzf/d egroiw.kz rro gksrk gsa fdlh deiuh] O;kikj (Business) vfkok laxbu (Organization) ds lelr dk;z blesa miyc/ MkVk ij gh v/kfjr gksrs gsaa ;fn MkVk v'kq¼ gks] rks bl Data ds vk/kj ij ifj.kke Hkh v'kq¼ gh izkir gksaxsa vr% MkVk dks lqjf{kr j[kuk vr;ur vko';d gsa vkwjsdy esa blds fy, vusd lqj{kk mik; (Security Features) miyc/ gsaa ftudh lgk;rk ls MkVk dks vuf/ñr iz;ksx,oa gkfu (Damage) ls cpk;k tk ldrk gsa fdlh Hkh laxbu (orgnization) esa vusd ;wtj dk;zjr~ gksrs gsaa bu lhkh dk Lrj (Level),oa vkf/ dkj fhkuu&fhkuu gksrs gsaa vr% MkVk ds vuf/ñr mi;ksx dks jksdus ds fy, izr;sd ;wtj dks vyx&vyx igpkuuk vko';d gsa ;g dk;z ;wtj&uke (user name), iklomz (Password),oa vu; lacaf/r y{k.kksa (Features) }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa 149

150 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy ;wtj vdkmuv dk fuekz.k (Creating a User Account) MkVk dh lqj{kk dks cuk, j[kus ds fy, ml ij dk;z djusokys izr;sd ;wtj dh os/rk (Validity) rfkk vf/dkj (Authority) dk è;ku j[kuk vko';d gsa blds fy, MkVkcsl iz'kkld (Administrator) }kjk izr;sd ;wtj dks,d user name,oa password iznku fd;k tkrk gsa dksbz Hkh ;wtj dsoy mfpr user name rfkk password ds }kjk gh MkVkcsl ds MkVk dks izkir dj ldrk gs vfkok ml ij dksbz dk;z dj ldrk gsa,d u, ;wtj ds fy, user name, password br;kfn dks ifjhkkf"kr djus ds fy, 'CREATE USER' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % 150 CREATE USER <User_Name> IDENTIFIED BY {<Password> EXTERNALLY GLOBALLY AS <Glogal_Name>} [DEFAULT TABLESPACE <Tablespace_Name>] [QUOTA {<Integral_Bytes> UNLIMITED}] [PROFILE <Profile_Name>] [PASSWORD EXPLORE] [ACCOUNT {LOCK UNLOCK}]; bl fluvsdl esa iz;qdr dqn egroiw.kz 'kcn,oa muds vfkz % <User_Name> : ;g izr;sd ;wtj dk,d vf}rh; (Unique) uke gksrk gs] ftlds }kjk fdlh ;wtj dks vu; ;wtj ls vyx igpkuk tk ldrk gsa IDENTIFIED BY : ;wtj dh os/rk (Validity) dks tk pus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa dqn fof/ ;ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa] ftugsa 'IDENTIFIED BY' Clause ds lkfk fy[krs gsaa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % <Password> : ;wtj dh os/rk dks tkapus ds fy, izr;sd ;wtj dks,d xqir (Secret) 'kcn fn;k tkrk gsa bls 'Password' dgrs gsaa MkVkcsl ds lkfk dk;z djus ds fy, lgh <User_Name>,oa <Password> fy[kuk ;wtj ds fy, vfuok;z gsa vu;fkk] MkVkcsl esa izos'k (Log- In) ugha fd;k tk ldrk,oa bldk MkVk izkir (Access) djuk Hkh lahko ugha gsa EXTERNALLY : blds }kjk ;g crk;k tkrk gs fd ;wtj dh os/rk dh tkap vkwjsdy ds ckgj fdlh vu; vuqiz;ksx (Application) vfkok vkwijsfvax fllve }kjk dh xbz gsa GLOBALLY : blds }kjk ;g Li"V fd;k tkrk gs fd ;wtj dh os/rk dh tkap vkwjsdy dh lqj{kk&lsok (Security service) }kjk dh xbz gsa DEFAULT TABLESPACE : bl fodyi (Option) ds }kjk ml VscyLisl dk uke iznku fd;k tkrk gs] ftlesa ;wtj }kjk fufezr Objects dks j[kk tkuk gsa QUOTA : PROFILE : blds }kjk fdlh VscyLisl esa ;wtj dks fn, x, LFkku dh lhek fu/kzfjr dh tkrh gsa bldk eku Bytes, Kilobytes vfkok Megabytes esa fn;k tkrk gsa ;fn LFkku vlhfer j[kuk gks] rks UNLIM- ITED fy[kk tkrk gsa bl fodyi ds }kjk ;wtj ds fy,,d izksiqkby uke cuk;k tkrk gs rfkk MkVkcsl esa mlds vf/dkj fu/kzfjr fd, tk ldrs gsaa mnkgj.k % CREATE USER "SUMANT" IDENTIFIED BY "VIDWANS"

151 DEFAULT TABLESPACE "STUDENTS" QUOTA UNLIMITED ACCOUNT UNLOCKED; ;wtj vdkmuv O;oLFkkiu,oa bumsfdlax dh vo/kj.kk vkmviqv : User Created. 'CREATE USER' dek.m esa <User Name> rfkk 'IDENTIFIED BY' ds vfrfjdr vu; lhkh Clauses dk iz;ksx osdfyid gksrk gsa vr% 'CREATE USER' dek.m dks blds ljyre :i esa bl izdkj Hkh fy[kk tk ldrk gs % CREATE USER "SUMANT" IDENTIFIED BY "VIDWANS"; vkmviqv : User created ;wtj vdkmuv dk O;oLFkkiu (Managing a User Account) 'CREATE USER' dek.m ds }kjk,d u;k ;wtj vdkmuv fufezr gks tkus ij lgh user-name,oa password dh lgk;rk ls ;wtj vc MkVkcsl es a izos'k (Log-In) dj ldrk gs rfkk MkVk ij dk;z Hkh dj ldrk gsa ijurq izr;sd ;wtj dk Lrj,oa vf/dkj fhkuu&fhkuu gksrs gs aa vr% buds vk/kj ij ;g fu/kzfjr djuk vko';d gksrk gs] fd dksbz fof'k"v ;wtj fdlh MkVkcsl ij fdu&fdu dk;ks ± dks djus ds fy, vf/ñr (Authorized) gsa blds vfrfjdr vko';drk lekir gks tkus ij ;wtj ds vdkmuv dks can djuk Hkh egroiw.kz gksrk gsa ;wtj vdkmuv dk O;oLFkkiu (Management) MkVkcsl iz'kkld (Administrator) }kjk fd;k tkrk gs SA bles a eq[;r% fueufyf[kr rhu dk;z lfeefyr gksrs gs a % ;wtj ds Lrj ds vuqlkj mls MkVkcsl ij dk;z djus ds fy, fo'ks"kkf/dkj (Privileges) iznku djuka (Granting Privileges) ifjflfkfr;ksa ds vuqlkj vko';d gksus ij ;wtj dks iznku fd, x, fo'ks"kkf/dkj okil ysuka (Revoking Privileges) ;wtj ds vdkmuv dks can djuka (Deleting A User) 10.2 vuqefr iznku djuk (Granting Permissions) MkVkcsl ds MkVk dks gkfu (Damage),oa vukf/ñr iz;ksx (Unauthorized use) ls lqjf{kr j[kus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa folr`r lqj{kk mik; miyc/ gsaa ;wtj ds Lrj (Status),oa mùkjnkf;ro (Responsibilty) ds vk/kj ij MkVkcsl iz'kkld }kjk mls MkVk ij fhkuu&fhkuu dk;z djus dh vuqefr iznku dh tkrh gsa blds fy, ;wtj dks fof'k"v dk;ks± ls lacafèkr vf/dkj fn;s tkrs gsaa ;wtj dks fn, tkus okys bu fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa dks Privileges dgk tkrk gsa Privileges iznku djus ds fy, 'GRANT' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blh izdkj fdlh ;wtj dks fn, x, fo'ks"kkf/dkj mlls okil Hkh fy, tk ldrs gsaa ;g dk;z 'REVOKE' }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa izkf/dkj iznku djuk (Granting Privileges) fdlh fof'k"v ;wtj }kjk fufezr lhkh Objects dk Owner,oa fu;a=kd (Controller) Lo;a og ;wtj gh gksrk gsa ;fn ;wtj pkgs] rks vkwctsdv ls lacaf/r fofhkuu vf/dkj og vu; ;wtlz dks iznku dj ldrk gsa bl izdkj fdlh ;wtj }kjk vu; ;wtlz dks fdlh vkwctsdv ds iz;ksx dh vuqefr nsuk 'GRANTING PRIVILEGES' dgykrk gsa ;g dk;z 'GRANT' dfku }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % GRANT <Object_Privileges> ON <Object_Name> 151

152 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 152 TO <User_Name> [WITH GRANT OPTION]; bl fluvsdl esa iz;qdr egroiw.kz 'kcn (Terms),oa muds vfkz fueufyf[kr gs % < Object Privileges> : fdlh vkwctsdv ij dk;z djus ds fy, ;wtj dks fn, tk jgs fo'ks"kkf/ dkjksa dks o.kzu <Object Privileges> ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa ;wtj dks tks izkf/dkj iznku fd, x, gsa] ;wtj fdlh vkwctsdv ij muls lacaf/r dk;z gh dj ldrk gsa ;s izkf/dkj fueufyf[kr gsa <Object Name> <User Name> With Grant Option ALTER DELETE IDNEX INSERT SELECT UPDATE ALL : blds }kjk ;wtj dks 'ALTER TABLE' dfku ds }kjk Vscy dh ifjhkk"kk (Definition) ifjofrzr djus dh vuqefr nh tkrh gsa : ;g izkf/dkj izkir gksus ij ;wtj fdlh Vscy ds fjdkmz dks 'DELETE' }kjk fevk ldrk gsa : ftl ;wtj dks ;g fo'ks"kkf/dkj iznku fd;k x;k gs] og fdlh Vscy ij 'CREATE INDEX' }kjk,d INDEX cuk ldrk gsa : blds }kjk ;wtj dks 'INSERT TABLE' dh lgk;rk ls fdlh Vscy esa MkVk izfo"v djus dk vf/dkj iznku fd;k tkrk gsa : ;fn ;wtj ds ikl 'SELECT' izkf/dkj gs] rks og 'SELECT' dfku dh lgk;rk ls Vscy MkVk dks ns[k ldrk gsa : 'UPDATE' izkf/dkj izkir gksus ij ;wtj fdlh Vscy ds fjdkmz dks 'UPDATE' dfku dh lgk;rk ls ifjofrzr dj ldrk gsa : ;fn fdlh ;wtj dks mijksdr lhkh vf/dkj iznku djus gksa] rks blds fy, 'ALL' dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa : blds }kjk ml vkwctsdv (tsls&vscy) dk uke crk;k tkrk gs] ftl ij fo'ks"kkf/dkj fn, tk jgs gsaa : bl fodyi ds }kjk ml ;wtj dk uke fy[kk tkuk gs] ftls fo'ks"kkf/ dkj iznku fd, tk jgs gsaa : bldk iz;ksx osdfyid (Optional) gksrk gsa ;fn fdlh ;wtj dks fo'ks"kkf/dkj iznku djrs le; Owner }kjk bl fodyi dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k Fkk] rks vf/dkj izkir djus okyk ;wtj Hkh vu; ;wtlz dks ml vkwctsdv ij izkf/dkj iznku (Grant) dj ldrk gsa mnkgj.k 1 : GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON Persons To Nidhi; mijksdr dfku ds }kjk Nidhi uked ;wtj dks 'Persons' Vscy ij SELECT rfkk UPDATE vf/dkj fn, tk jgs gsaa mnkgj.k 2 : GRANT ALL ON STUDENTS TO SUMANT; ;g dfku] 'STUDENTS' uked Vscy ds fy, ;wtj 'SUMANT' dks lhkh izkf/dkj iznku djrk gsa

153 mnkgj.k 3 : GRANT ALL ON ACCOUNTS TO SWATI WITH GRANT OPTION; mnkgj.k % mnkgj.k % bl dfku esa 'SWATI' dks 'ACCOUNTS' Vscy ij lhkh vf/dkj fn, x, gsaa lkfk gh] blesa 'WITH GRANT OPTION' dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k x;k gsa bldk vfkz ;g gs fd ;wtj 'SWATI' }kjk vf/dkj fdlh vu; ;wtj dks Hkh fn, tk ldrs gsaa,d ckj fdlh vu; ;wtj ds vkwctsdv ds fy, izkf/dkj izkir gks tkus ij ;wtj ml vkwctsdv ij dk;z dj ldrk gsa ijurq] bl flfkfr esa vkwctsdv&uke dks Owner ds uke ds lkfk fy[kuk vko';d gsa ;fn fdlh ;wtj dks 'Patients' uked Vscy ij 'SELECT' vf/dkj izkir gs rfkk bl Vscy ds Owner dk uke 'VIKAS' gs] rks fo'ks"kkf/dkj izkir djus okys ;wtj }kjk 'Patients' Vscy dk MkVk iznf'kzr djus ds fy, fueufyf[kr dfku fy[kk tkuk pkfg,% SELECT * FROM Vikas. Patients; blh izdkj 'WITH GRANT OPTION' ds }kjk izkir fo'ks"kkf/dkj fdlh vu; ;wtj dks iznku djrs le; Hkh vkwctsdv ds igys owner dk uke fy[kuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;fn 'CUSTOMERS' uked Vscy ij ;wtj 'RAMESH' dks 'SELECT' vf/dkj fn;k tk jgk gs] rfkk bl Vscy ds owner dk uke 'NARENDRA' gs] rks ;g izkf/ dkj nsus ds fy, fueufyf[kr dfku fy[kk tk,xk % GRANT SELECT ON NARENDRA. CUSTOMERS TO RAMESH; 10.3 izkf/dkj gvkuk (Revoking Privileges) 'GRANT' dfku dh lgk;rk ls fdlh ;wtj dks iznku fd, x, fo'ks"kkf/dkj (Privileges) ;wtj ls okil Hkh fy, tk ldrs gsaa ;g dk;z owner }kjk vfkok ml ;wtj }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gs] ftlus 'WITH GRANT OPTION' dh lgk;rk ls izkir vf/dkj fdl vu; ;wtj dks fn, FksA ;wtj dks 'GRANT' }kjk fn, x, vf/dkj okil ysus ds fy, 'REVOKE' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % REVOKE <Object_Privileges> ON <Object_Name> FROM <User_Name>; ;g è;ku nsus ;ksx; ckr gs fd 'REVOKE' ds }kjk dsoy os vf/dkj gh okil fy, tk ldrs gs a] tks 'GRANT' dfku }kjk fn, x, FksA fdlh ;wtj dks vkwijsfvax fllve }kjk iznku fd, x, izkf/ dkjksa dks 'REVOKE' dek.m ds }kjk okil ugha fy;k tk ldrka mnkgj.k 1 : REVOKE DELETE ON Books FROM ANIL; mijksdr dfku }kjk 'ANIL' uked ;wtj ls 'Book' Vscy ds fy, 'DELETE' vf/dkj okil fy;k tk jgk gsa ;fn ;wtj dks dqn vu; vf/dkj Hkh fn, x, Fks] rks 'ks"k vf/ dkj ;wtj ds ikl cus jgsaxsa mnkgj.k 2 : REVOKE ALL ON STUDENTS FROM SWATI; mijksdr dfku] 'STUDENTS' Vscy ij fn, x, lhkh vf/dkj SWATI ls okil ys jgk gsa mnkgj.k 3 : REVOKE INSERT, UPDATE ON NIDHI. RESULTS FROM SUMANT; mijksdr dfku }kjk SUMANT uked ;wtj ls 'RESULTS' Vscy ds fy, 'INSERT',oa 'UPDATE' vf/dkjksa dk okil fy;k tk jgk gsa bl Vscy ds Owner dk uke NIDHI gs] vr% Vscy dk uke fy[krs le; mls <User Name>.<Table Name> ds :i esa fy[kk x;k gsa ;wtj vdkmuv O;oLFkkiu,oa bumsfdlax dh vo/kj.kk 153

154 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 10.4 iklomz ifjofrzr djuk (Modifying Password) MkVk dh lqj{kk dks lqfuf'pr djus ds fy;s ;wtj ds iklomz dh xksiuh;rk dks cuk;s j[kuk vko';d gsa ;fn fdlh Hkwy vfkok ykijokgh ds dkj.k fdlh vf/ñr ;wtj dk iklomz fdlh vukf/ñr ;wtj dks izkir gks tk,] rks bldk nq:i;ksx gksus dh vr;f/d lahkkouk gksrh gsa,slh flfkfr esa rqjar gh iklomz ifjofrzr dj nsuk pkfg;sa ;g dk;z 'ALTER USER...' uked dek.m }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bl dek.m dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % ALTER USER '<User_Name>' '<Old_Password>' '<New_Password>'; tgk ] <User_Name> <Old_Name> <New_Password> ml ;wtj dk ;wtj&uke gs] ftldk iklomz ifjofrzr djuk gsa ;wtj dk orzeku iklomz gs] ftls ifjofrzr djuk gsa <Old_Name> dks cnydj] ;wtj ds fy;s ftl u, iklomz dk iz;ksx fd;k tkuk gsa og <New_Password> ds }kjk fn;k tkrk gsa bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % ALTER USER 'SUMANT', 'MATHURA', 'PRAGYA'; mijksdr mnkgj.k esa 'ALTER USER...' dfku ds }kjk 'SUMANT' uked,d ;wtj dk iklomz ifjofrzr fd;k tk jgk gsa ;wtj dk orzeku iklomz 'MATHURA' gs] ftls cnydj 'PARGYA' fd;k x;k gsa 10.5 ;wtj vdkmuv dks fevkuk (Deleting a User Account) vko';drk vfkok ifjflfkfr;ksa ds vuqlkj MkVkcsl iz'kkld fdlh ;wtj ds vdkmuv dks can djds ;wtj dks fllve ls iw.kzr% gvk Hkh ldrk gsa,slk djus ds fy, 'DROP USER' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;g dek.m fdlh ;wtj ds Ldhek esa fufezr lhkh objects rfkk muds lhkh laca/ ksa (Relations) dks gvk nsrh gs rfkk ;wtj dks eseksjh ls iw.kzr% fevk fn;k tkrk gsa 154 fluvsdl : mnkgj.k % DROP USER <User Name>; DROP USER SUMANT; bl dek.m ds }kjk 'SUMANT' uked ;wtj dks gvk;k tk jgk gsa 10.6 ;wtlz ls lacaf/r dqn iqad'ku (Some Functions Related with Users) fdlh ;wtj ls lacaf/r fo'ks"k lwpuk, izkir djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa fofhkuu iqad'ku miyc/ gksrs gsaa buesa ls izeq[k iqad'ku fueufyf[kr gsa % (a) UID : ;g iqad'ku orzeku (Current) ;wtj dk ID Øekad iznf'kzr djrk gsa ;g Øekad,d iw.kk±d (Integer) eku gksrk gsa Syntax : UID [INTO <variable>] ;gk [INTO <variable>] dk iz;ksx osdfyid gsa,slk djus ij UID dk uke fn, x, osfj;scy esa lafpr gks tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % SELECT UID FROM DUAL;

155 Out-put : UID ;wtj vdkmuv O;oLFkkiu,oa bumsfdlax dh vo/kj.kk 24 (b) USER : ;g iqad'ku orzeku (Current) ;wtj dk uke iznf'kzr djrk gsa Syntax : mnkgj.k % Out-put : USER SELECT USER FROM DUAL; UID KAMLESH 10.7 bumsdl (INDEX) tc MkVkcsl ds,d Vscy ls fdlh damh'ku ds vk/kj ij dksbz fof'k"v fjdkmz < w<+us ds fy, SELECT dfku fy[kk tkrk gs] rks vkwjsdy batu bls fueufyf[kr nks pj.kksa (Steps) esa fø;kfuor djrk gs % (1) lozizfke eseksjh esa ml Vscy dh flfkfr (Location) <aw<uk vko';d gsa blds fy, fllve dh lwpukvksa (System Information) dks i<+dj vkwjsdy batu ml Vscy dh izkjfehkd flfkfr dks gkmz&fmld esa <wa<rk gsa (2) blds i'pkr~ 'SELECT' dfku esa nh xbz damh'ku dks iw.kz (Satisfy) djus okys fjdkmz [kkstus ds fy, bugas,d Øe esa (Sequentially) <wa<k tkrk gsa Vscy esa fjdkmz~l dks mlh Øe esa lafpr (Store) fd;k tkrk gs] ftl Øe esa mugsa Vscy esa izfo"v (Insert) fd;k x;k FkkA vr% nh xbz fdlh damh'ku dks iw.kz (Satisfy) djus okys lhkh fjdkmz~l (Records) dks [kkstus ds fy, izr;sd SELECT dfku ds lkfk leiw.kz dkwye dks tkapuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;fn fdlh Vscy esa fjdkm~zl dh la[;k cgqr vfèkd gs] rks bl izdkj izr;sd dfku ds fy, leiw.kz Vscy dks <wa<us esa cgqr vf/d le; yxrk gs] ftlls fllve dh dk;z{kerk (Efficiency)?kVrh gsa bl lel;k dk lek/ku djus ds fy, vkwjsdy eas bumsfdlax (Indexing) uked rduhd dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bumsfdlax fdlh Vscy ds MkVk dks Sort djus rfkk mlesa Records dks [kkstus dh,d fof/ gsa fdlh Vscy esa Records dks <wa<us rfkk mugsa izkir (Access) djus dh xfr dks bumsdl dh lgk;rk ls cgqr vf/d c<+k;k tk ldrk gsa 'Index', fdlh Vscy ds,d dkwye (vfkok Columns ds lewg) ds MkVk dh,d sorted lwph (list) gksrh gsa Indexing ds fy,,d f}&vk;keh (Two- Dimensional) Matrix dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;g matrix ml Vscy ls iw.kzr% Lora=k gksrk gs] ftl ij Index dk fuekz.k fd;k x;k gsa Index esa Vscy ds ftu columns dks lfeefyr fd;k x;k gs] mudk MkVk bl Index ds,d dkwye esa sort djds j[kk tkrk gsa MkVkcsl esa fjdkmz dh flfkfr dks igpkuus ds fy, Index esa,d vu; column Hkh gksrk gsa bls 'Address Field' dgrs gsaa izr;sd Vscy ds lkfk vkwjsdy MkVkcsl vkarfjd :i ls (Internally),d fo'ks"k dkwye dk iz;ksx djrk gsa bl dkwye dk uke 'ROWID' gksrk gsa 'ROWID' izr;sd Vscy dk,d fo'ks"k dkwye gksrk gs] ftls 'SELECT *' vfkok 'DESCRIBE' ds }kjk ugha ns[kk tk ldrka blh izdkj bl dkwye ds MkVk dks INSERT vfkok UPDATE ds }kjk ifjofrzr Hkh ugha fd;k tk ldrk gsa fdlh Vscy ls ROWID ds eku dks iznf'kzr djus ds fy, fueufyf[kr dfku fy[kk tkrk gs % dfku % SELECT ROWID FROM <TableName> 155

156 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % Index dh address field dks "ROWID" dgk tkrk gsa tc Hkh Vscy esa dksbz MkVk izfo"v fd;k tkrk gs] rks vkwjsdy batu Lor% gh (Automatically) bumsdl esa og MkVk j[krk gsa Index es a j[kh izr;sd MkVk osy;w ds fy, vkwjsdy batu }kjk,d vf}rh; (Unique) ROWID eku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl ROWID ds }kjk bl ckr dh lwpuk izkir gksrh gs fd fjdkmz dks Vscy es a dgk j[kk x;k gsa vr%,d ckj bumsdl es a mfpr MkVk eku Kkr gks tkus ij vkwjsdy batu blls lacaf/r fjdkmz dks ROWID dh lgk;rk ls Vscy es a <w < ysrk gsa bumsdl es a fjdkmz dks Column (s) ds vkjksgh Øe (Assending order) es a j[kk tkrk gsa pw fd] bumsdl es a j[kk ;g MkVk,d Øe es a Sorted gksrk gs] vr% fdlh 'SELECT' dfku ds fy, MkVk dks [kkstrs le; ;fn dksbz,slk fjdkmz izkir gksrk gs] tks ml 'SELECT' dfku ds 'WHERE' clause es a nh xbz damh'ku dh lhek ls ckgj gs] rks blds ckn MkVk dks vkxs s <a w<us dh vko';drk ugha gksrha bl izdkj ROWID rfkk Indexes ds dkj.k izr;sd 'SELECT' dfku ds fy, leiw.kz Vscy dks [kkstus dh vko';drk lekir gks tkus ls le; dh cpr gksrh gs rfkk dk;z{kerk c<+rh gsa ROWID MkVk&Vkbi fueufyf[kr nks izdkj dk gksrk gs% Restricted ;g izk:i (Format) vkwjsdy 7 rfkk iwoz fufezr laldj.kksa dh lgk;rk ls fodflr vuqiz;ksxksa (Application) ds fy, vuq:irk (Compatability) iznku djrk gsa Restricted ROWID dk izk:i fueufyf[kr gksrk gs % BBBBBBB. RRRR. FFFF ;gk BBBBBBB,d MkVk&CykWd la[;k] RRRR ml CykWd esa fjdkmz Øekad rfkk FFFF,d MkVk iqkby la[;k gsa ;wtj MkVk dks j[kus ds fy, vkwjsdy batu }kjk iz;ksx dh tkus okyh iqkbyksa dks MkVk iqkby dgk tkrk gsa izr;sd MkVk iqkby dk,d vf}rh; (Unique) Øekad gksrk gsa,d MkVk iqkby fofhkuu CykWDl esa fohkkftr gksrh gsa izr;sd CykWd dk Hkh,d vf}rh; Øekad gksrk gsa fdlh MkVk iqkby ds izfke MkVk CykWd dks Øekad 0(zero) fn;k tkrk gsa izr;sd CykWd esa,d vfkok vf/d fjdkmz j[ks tk ldrs gsaa RRRR, izr;sd fjdkmz dk vf}rh; (Unique) Øekad gksrk gsa Restricted ROWID ds izk:i dks fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % dfku % SELECT ACCOUNT_NO, ROWID FROM BALANCE; vkmviqv : ACCOUNT_NO ROWID 156 SB SB CA LA CA

157 Extended ROWID dk ;g izk:i (Format) VscyLisl laca/h MkVk CykWd,Mªsl dk lefkzu djrk gsa bl izk:i dh lgk;rk ls fohkkftr (Partitioned) rfkk vfohkkftr (Non- Partitioned) nksuksa gh izdkj ds VscYl rfkk Indexes esa iafdr;ksa dks n{krkiwozd (Efficiently) igpkuk tk ldrk gsa Oracle 8i rfkk blds ckn fufezr laldj.kksa esa cuk, x, VscYl,oa Indexes ds fy, lnso ROWID ds Extended (folrkfjr) izk:i dk gh fd;k tkrk gsa ;g izk:i fueufyf[kr gs % FFF BBBBBB RRR ;gk '000000', MkVk vkwctsdv dk Øekad] 'FFF', VscyLisl laca/h (Relative) MkVk iqkby Øekad] 'BBBBBB', iafdr dks j[kus okys MkVkCykWd dk Øekad rfkk 'RRR' ml CykWd esa iafdr dk Øekad gksrk gsa ;gka MkVk CykWd Øekad mudh MkVk iqkbyksa ds lkfk lacaf/r gksrs gsa] VscyLisl ds lkfk ughaa vr%,d gh CykWd Øekad okyh nks iafdr;k,d VscyLisl dh nks fhkuu&fhkuu MkVk iqkbyksa esa Hkh gks ldrh gsa folrkfjr izk:i dks fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs % ;wtj vdkmuv O;oLFkkiu,oa bumsfdlax dh vo/kj.kk bumsdl dk fuekz.k (Creating Index) vkwjsdy esa bumsdl dks fufezr (Create) djuk vr;ar ljy gksrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, 'CREATE INDEX' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa buesa j[ks tk ldus okys ekuksa (values) ds vk/kj ij bumsdl nks izdkj ds gks ldrs gsa % Duplicate Index : dqn bumsdl vius Columns esa nksgjs eku (Duplicate values) j[kus dh vuqefr iznku djrs gsaa bl izdkj ds bumsdl dks 'Duplicate Index' dgk tkrk gsa Unique Index :,sls bumsdl ftuds columns esa nksgjs eku (Duplicate values) j[kuk fuf"k¼ gksrk gs] vfkkzr~ ftuesa Duplicate Value ugha j[kh tk ldrh gs] mu bumsdl dks Unique Index dgk tkrk gsa blh izdkj bumsdl esa lfeefyr dkwyel dh la[;k ds vk/kj ij Hkh bumsdl fueufyf[kr nks izdkj ds gks ldrs gsa % Simple Index,sls bumsdl ftugsa fdlh Vscy ds dsoy,d dkwye ij cuk;k x;k gs] vfkkzr~ ftue Vscy dk dsoy,d gh dkwye lfeefyr gs] mugsa 'Simple Index' dgk tkrk gsa Composite Index ;fn fdlh bumsdl esa Vscy ds,d ls vf/d dkwyel lfeefyr gsa] rks,sls bumsdl dks 'Composite Index' dgrs gsaa 157

158 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy M~;wIyhdsV bumsdl dk fuekz.k (Creating Duplicate Index),d 'Duplicate Index' dks Simple vfkok Composite nksuksa izdkj ls cuk;k tk ldrk gsa bu nksuksa ds fluvsdl rfkk mnkgj.k fueufyf[kr gs % (a) Creating Simple Duplicate Index bl izdkj ds bumsdl esa Vscy dk dsoy,d gh dkwye lfeefyr gksrk gsa fluvsdl : CREATE INDEX <Index Name> ON <Table Name> (<Column Name>); mijksdr mnkgj.k esa STUDENTS uked Vscy ij Idx_Students uked,d bumsdl cuk;k x;k gsa bl bumsdl esa Vscy dk dsoy,d gh dkwye& 'NAME' lfeefyr gsa vr% ;g,d Simple Duplicate Index gs] ftlesa 'Students' Vscy ds NAME dkwye dh lhkh Values dks vkjksgh (Assending) Øe es a Sort djds j[kk tk,xka (b) Creating Composite Duplicate Index ;fn fdlh Duplicate Index dk fuekz.k djrs le; blesa Vscy ds,d ls vf/d Columns lfeefyr gsa] rks bl izdkj ds bumsdl dks Composite Duplicate Index dgk tkrk gsa fluvsdl : CREATE INDEX <Index Name> ON mnkgj.k % <Table Name> (<Column 1>,<Column 2>,...); 158 mijksdr mnkgj.k esa 'PERSONS' Vscy ds fy,,d bumsdl cuk;k tk jgk gs] ftldk uke 'Persons-Index' gsa blesa Vscy ds nks Columns-'First_Name' rfkk 'Last-Name' lfeefyr gs aa ;g,d Composite Duplicate Index gsa bumsdl eas Columns ds MkVk dks vkjksgh (Ascending) Øe esa j[kk tkrk gsa ;fn bls vojksgh (Descending) Øe esa Sort djuk gks] rks blds fy, bumsdl dks ifjhkkf"kr (Define) djrs le; <Column Name> ds lkfk 'DESC' Keyword fy[kk tkrk gsa

159 mnkgj.k % ;wtj vdkmuv O;oLFkkiu,oa bumsfdlax dh vo/kj.kk ;wfud bumsdl dk fuekz.k (Creating Unique Index) Duplicate Index ds vfrfjdr vkwjsdy esa,sls bumsdl Hkh cuk, tk ldrs gsa] ftuesa nksgjs eku (Duplicate values) j[kuk LohÑr (Allowed) ugha gksrka bugsa 'UNIQUE INDEX' dgk tkrk gsa UNIQUE INDEX Hkh Simple rfkk Composite nksuksa izdkj ds gks ldrs gsaa (a) Simple Unique Index ;fn UNIQUE INDEX esa Vscy dk dsoy,d gh dkwye fy;k x;k gs] rks bl bumsdl dks Simple Unique Index dgk tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % CREATE UNIQUE INDEX <Index Name> ON <Table Name> (<Column Name>); (b) Compsite Unique Index ;fn UNIQUE INDEX esa Vscy ds,d ls vf/d dkwye lfeefyr gs] rks bls composite unique bumsdl dgrs gsaa CREATE UNIQUE INDEX <Index Name> ON <Table Name> (<Column 1>,<Column 2>...); mnkgj.k % Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- çkf/dkj gvkuk D;k gksrk gs \ 2- bumsfdlax D;k gs \ 3- GRANT Privlilages D;k gksrk gs \ 159

160 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 10.8 bumsdl dks gvkuk (Dropping Index) Vscy ls lacaf/r fdlh bumsdl dks gvkus ds fy, 'DROP INDEX' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % DROP INDEX <Index_Name>; mnkgj.k % lkjka'k (Summary) fdlh Hkh laxbu (orgnization) esa vusd ;wtj dk;zjr~ gksrs gsaa bu lhkh dk Lrj (Level),oa vkf/dkj fhkuu&fhkuu gksrs gsaa vr% MkVk ds vuf/ñr mi;ksx dks jksdus ds fy, izr;sd ;wtj dks vyx&vyx igpkuuk vko';d gsa ;g dk;z ;wtj&uke (user name), iklomz (Password),oa vu; lacaf/r y{k.kksa (Features) }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa MkVk dh lqj{kk dks cuk, j[kus ds fy, ml ij dk;z djusokys izr;sd ;wtj dh os/rk (Validity) rfkk vf/dkj (Authority) dk è;ku j[kuk vko';d gsa blds fy, MkVkcsl iz'kkld (Administrator) }kjk izr;sd ;wtj dks,d user name,oa password iznku fd;k tkrk gsa dksbz Hkh ;wtj dsoy mfpr user name rfkk password ds }kjk gh MkVkcsl ds MkVk dks izkir dj ldrk gs vfkok ml ij dksbz dk;z dj ldrk gsa 160,d u, ;wtj ds fy, user name, password br;kfn dks ifjhkkf"kr djus ds fy, 'CREATE USER' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;wtj ds Lrj (Status),oa mùkjnkf;ro (Responsibilty) ds vk/kj ij MkVkcsl iz'kkld }kjk mls MkVk ij fhkuu&fhkuu dk;z djus dh vuqefr iznku dh tkrh gsa blds fy, ;wtj dks fof'k"v dk;ks± ls lacafèkr vf/dkj fn;s tkrs gsaa ;wtj dks fn, tkus okys bu fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa dks Privileges dgk tkrk gsa Privileges iznku djus ds fy, 'GRANT' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh ;wtj }kjk vu; ;wtlz dks fdlh vkwctsdv ds iz;ksx dh vuqefr nsuk 'GRANTING PRIVILEGES' dgykrk gsa ;g dk;z 'GRANT' dfku }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa ;wtj dks 'GRANT' }kjk fn, x, vf/dkj okil ysus ds fy, 'REVOKE' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 'REVOKE' ds }kjk dsoy os vf/dkj gh okil fy, tk ldrs gsa] tks 'GRANT' dfku }kjk fn, x, FksA fdlh ;wtj dks vkwijsfvax fllve }kjk iznku fd, x, izkf/dkjksa dks 'REVOKE' dek.m ds }kjk okil ugha fy;k tk ldrka MkVk dh lqj{kk dks lqfuf'pr djus ds fy;s ;wtj ds iklomz dh xksiuh;rk dks cuk;s j[kuk vko';d gsa ;fn fdlh Hkwy vfkok ykijokgh ds dkj.k fdlh vf/ñr ;wtj dk iklomz fdlh vukf/ñr ;wtj dks izkir gks tk,] rks bldk nq:i;ksx gksus dh vr;f/d lahkkouk gksrh

161 gsa,slh flfkfr esa rqjar gh iklomz ifjofrzr dj nsuk pkfg;sa ;g dk;z 'ALTER USER...' uked dek.m }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa vko';drk vfkok ifjflfkfr;ksa ds vuqlkj MkVkcsl iz'kkld fdlh ;wtj ds vdkmuv dks can djds ;wtj dks fllve ls iw.kzr% gvk Hkh ldrk gsa,slk djus ds fy, 'DROP USER' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa UID iqad'ku orzeku (Current) ;wtj dk ID Øekad iznf'kzr djrk gsa ;g Øekad,d iw.kk±d (Integer) eku gksrk gsa USER iqad'ku orzeku (Current) ;wtj dk uke iznf'kzr djrk gsa bumsfdlax fdlh Vscy ds MkVk dks Sort djus rfkk mlesa Records dks [kkstus dh,d fof/ gsa 'Index', fdlh Vscy ds,d dkwye (vfkok Columns ds lewg) ds MkVk dh,d sorted lwph (list) gksrh gsa izr;sd Vscy ds lkfk vkwjsdy MkVkcsl vkarfjd :i ls (Internally),d fo'ks"k dkwye dk iz;ksx djrk gsa bl dkwye dk uke 'ROWID' gksrk gsa 'ROWID' izr;sd Vscy dk,d fo'ks"k dkwye gksrk gs] ftls 'SELECT *' vfkok 'DESCRIBE' ds }kjk ugha ns[kk tk ldrka Restricted izk:i (Format) vkwjsdy 7 rfkk iwoz fufezr laldj.kksa dh lgk;rk ls fodflr vuqiz;ksxksa (Application) ds fy, vuq:irk (Compatability) iznku djrk gsa Extended izk:i (Format) VscyLisl laca/h MkVk CykWd,Mªsl dk lefkzu djrk gsa bl izk:i dh lgk;rk ls fohkkftr (Partitioned) rfkk vfohkkftr (Non-Partitioned) nksuksa gh izdkj ds VscYl rfkk Indexes esa iafdr;ksa dks n{krkiwozd (Efficiently) igpkuk tk ldrk gsa Oracle 8i rfkk blds ckn fufezr laldj.kksa esa cuk, x, VscYl,oa Indexes ds fy, lnso ROWID ds Extended (folrkfjr) izk:i dk gh fd;k tkrk gsa dqn bumsdl vius Columns esa nksgjs eku (Duplicate values) j[kus dh vuqefr iznku djrs gsaa bl izdkj ds bumsdl dks 'Duplicate Index' dgk tkrk gsa,sls bumsdl ftuds columns esa nksgjs eku (Duplicate values) j[kuk fuf"k¼ gksrk gs] vfkkzr~ ftuesa Duplicate Value ugha j[kh tk ldrh gs] mu bumsdl dks Unique Index dgk tkrk gsa,sls bumsdl ftugsa fdlh Vscy ds dsoy,d dkwye ij cuk;k x;k gs] vfkkzr~ ftue Vscy dk dsoy,d gh dkwye lfeefyr gs] mugsa 'Simple Index' dgk tkrk gsa ;fn fdlh bumsdl esa Vscy ds,d ls vf/d dkwyel lfeefyr gsa] rks,sls bumsdl dks 'Composite Index' dgrs gsaa Vscy ls lacaf/r fdlh bumsdl dks gvkus ds fy, 'DROP INDEX' dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;wtj vdkmuv O;oLFkkiu,oa bumsfdlax dh vo/kj.kk Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. 'GRANT' dfku dh lgk;rk ls fdlh ;wtj dks iznku fd, x, fo'ks"kkf/dkj (Privileges) ;wtj ls okil Hkh fy, tk ldrs gsaa ;g dk;z owner }kjk vfkok ml ;wtj }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gs] ftlus 'WITH GRANT OPTION' dh lgk;rk ls izkir vf/dkj fdl vu; ;wtj dks fn, FksA ;wtj dks 'GRANT' }kjk fn, x, vf/dkj okil ysus ds fy, 'REVOKE' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 2. bumsfdlax fdlh Vscy ds MkVk dks Sort djus rfkk mlesa Records dks [kkstus dh,d fof/ gsa 3. ;wtj ds Lrj (Status),oa mùkjnkf;ro (Responsibilty) ds vk/kj ij MkVkcsl iz'kkld }kjk mls MkVk ij fhkuu&fhkuu dk;z djus dh vuqefr iznku dh tkrh gsa blds fy, ;wtj dks 161

162 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy fof'k"v dk;ks± ls lacafèkr vf/dkj fn;s tkrs gsaa ;wtj dks fn, tkus okys bu fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa dks Privileges dgk tkrk gsa Privileges iznku djus ds fy, 'GRANT' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vh;kl (Exercise) 1. vkwjsdy esa ;wtj vdkmuv dh D;k vko';drk gs\ ;wtj vdkmuv fuekz.k ds fluvsdl dks folrkj ls le>kb;sa 2. vkwjsdy esa ;wtj vdkmuv dk O;oLFkkiu fdl izdkj fd;k tkrk gs\ 3. laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;s % (a) GRANT (b) REVOKE 4. GRANT dek.m ds fluvsdl dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 5. 'SACHIN' uked ;wtj dks 'LIBRARY' uked Vscy ij 'INSERT',oa 'UPDATE' izkf/dkj iznku djus ds fy;s GRANT dfku fyf[k;sa ;wtj 'SACHIN' }kjk ;s izkf/dkj fdlh vu; ;wtj dks nsuk Hkh lahko gksuk pkfg,a 6. REVOKE dek.m ds fluvsdl dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 7. 'RESULT' uked Vscy ds Owner dk uke 'RAHUL' gsa ;fn 'VINEET' uked ;wtj dks bl Vscy ds fy;s fn;s x, lhkh izkf/dkj 'VINEET' ls okil ysuk gks] blds fy, 'REVOKE' dek.m dk iz;ksx fdl izdkj fd;k tk,xk\ 8. fdlh ;wtj vdkmuv dk iklomz ifjofrzr djus ds fy, 'ALTER USER...' dek.m dk fluvsdl mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 9. ;wtj vdkmuv dks fdl dek.m ds }kjk gvk;k tk ldrk gs\ fluvsdl dks mnkgj.k lfgr LI"V dhft;sa 10. bumsdl dh vo/kj.kk dks le>kb;sa Vscy ij bumsdl dk iz;ksx djus dk eq[; ykhk D;k gs a \ 11. bumsdl ds fofhkuu izdkjksa ij laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;sa 12. Simple Duplicate Index ds iz;ksx dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 13. Composite Unique Index D;k gs\ blds iz;ksx dks,d mnkgj.k }kjk Li"V dhft;sa 14. bumsdl dks gvkus (DROPPING) dk fluvsdl fyf[k;sa mfpr mnkgj.k Hkh nhft;sa 162

163 11 PL/SQL izksxzkfeax dk ifjp; (Introduction to PL/SQL Programming) PL/SQL izksxzkfeax dk ifjp; bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % PL/SQL dk ifjp; PL/SQL ds ykhk SQL rfkk PL/SQL esa varj PL/SQL CykWd lajpuk PL/SQL o.kzekyk lewg osfj;scy] dkwulvuv rfkk MkVk&Vkbi vlkbuesav vkwijsvj rfkk 'SELECT...INTO' dk iz;ksx PL/SQL izksxzke fu;a=k.k lajpuk 'IF...THEN...ELSE...ENDIF' dk iz;ksx iqujko`fùk fu;a=k.k (LOOP, WHILE, FOR dk iz;ksx) 'GOTO' dfku dk iz;ksx 11.1 PL/SQL dk ifjp; : (Introduction to PL/SQL) ; fi fdlh MkVkcsl iz'kkld (Database Administrator) ds fy, SQL LokHkkfod fodyi gs] ijurq] blesa dqn,slh dfe;k gs] ftuds dkj.k,d jhfrxr (Procedural) izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk ds :i esa ;g vf/d mi;ksxh ugha gksrha SQL dh dqn dfe;k fueufyf[kr gs% 1. SQL esa dksbz jhfrxr (Procedural) {kerk, ugh gksrha vfkkzr~ blds }kjk fdlh Hkh izdkj dh czkafpax (Branching) vfkok ywfiax (Looping) lahko ugh gsa tcfd] fdlh Hkh MkVk (data) dks LFkk;h :i ls lafpr djus ls iwoz bls tk pus ds fy, bu lhkh i¼fr;ksa dh vko';drk gksrh gsa 2. vkwjsdy batu (Oracle Engine) esa,d le; ij dsoy,d gh SQL dfku Hkstk tkrk gsa izr;sd SQL dfku ds fy, batu ds lalk/uksa dks izkir djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa 163

164 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 164 blls usvodz (Network) ij ;krk;kr (Traffice) c<+rk gs rfkk MkVk ij izfø;k djus (Data-Processing) dh xfr de gks tkrh gsa 3. SQL dfkuksa ds fø;kuo;u ds nksjku dksbz =kqfviw.kz ifjflfkfr;k (Erroreous Conditions) mriuu gksus ij mugsa fu;af=kr djus ds fy, SQL esa dksbz lqfoèkk ugha gksrha,slh dksbz flfkfr mriuu gksus ij vkwjsdy batu gh =kqfv&lans'k (Error-Message) iznf'kzr djrk gsa,d vr;aur 'kfdr'kkyh Hkk"kk gksrs gq, Hkh] mijksdr dfe;ksa ds dkj.k SQL dks,d iw.kzr% jhfrxr (Procedural) izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk ugha ekuk tk ldrka vr% bu lhkh dfe;ksa dks nwj djus ds fy, vkwjsdy }kjk,d vu;] iw.kzr% fodflr izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk iznku dh xbz gs] ftldk uke PL/SQL (Procedural Language/SQL) gsa PL/SQL Hkk"kk] SQL dk folrkfjr :i gsa bl Hkk"kk esa SQL dh fo'ks"krkvksa ds lkfk jhfrxr (Procedural) Hkk"kk dh fo'ks"krkvksa dks la;ksftr fd;k x;k gs] ftlls ;g SQL ls vf/d 'kfdr'kkyh,oa mi;ksxh Hkk"kk cu xbz gsa PL/SQL dh lgk;rk ls mi;ksxdrkz izkslhtj (Procedure), iqad'ku (Function), isdst (Package) br;kfn izdkj dh fhkuu&fhkuu izksxzkfeax bzdkb;ksa dks ikfjhkkf"kr,oa fø;kfuor dj ldrk gsa 11.2 PL/SQL ds ykhk : (Advantage of PL/SQL) 1. PL/SQL,d fodkl midj.k (Development Tool) gs] tks MkVk ds dq'ky O;oLFkkiu es a lgk;rk iznku djrk gsa 2. MkVk O;oLFkkiu ds lkfk gh PL/SQL esa damh'ku psfdax (Condition Checking), czkafpax (Branching) rfkk ywfiax (Looping) dh lqfo/k,w Hkh miyc/ gksrh gsaa 3. PL/SQL esa funsz'kksa dk,d iwjk CykWd (Block),d lkfk vkwjsdy batu (Oracle Engine) ds ikl Hkstk tk ldrk gsa blls usvodz ij ;krk;kr (Traffic) esa deh vkrh gs rfkk funsz'kksa ds fø;kuo;u dh xfr (Execution Speed) Hkh c<+rh gsa 4. pw fd] PL/SQL esa,d iwjs CykWd dks,d lkfk Hkstk tkrk gs] vr% blds }kjk fdlh rkfydk (Table) ds MkVk esa fd, tk jgs ifjorzuksa dks Hkh,d ckj esa gh LohÑr (Done) vfkok vlohñr@fujlr (Undone) fd;k tk ldrk gsa 5. PL/SQL esa fdlh Dosjh (Query) ds ifj.kkeksa dks fdlh osfj;scy (Variable) esa lafpr Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gs rkfd mugsa iqu% izkir,oa iz;ksx fd;k tk ldsa 6. PL/SQL esa fy[kk x;k dksm (Code)] iw.kzr% IysViQkeZ bafmisumasv (Platform Independent) gksrk gsa vfkkzr~ fdlh,d gkmzos;j,oa vkwijsfvax fllve ij fy[ks x, dksm dks fdlh Hkh ifjorzu ds fcuk fdlh vu; gkmzos;j,oa vkwijsfvax fllve ij Hkh fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa 7. PL/SQL dh lgk;rk ls lhkh izdkj dh x.kuk, lgtrk ls dh tk ldrh gsaa x.kukvksa (Calculations) ds fy, vkwjsdy batu dh vko';drk u jg tkus ds dkj.k izfø;k (Processing) dh xfr esa o`f¼ gksrh gsa 8. PL/SQL esa isdstksa (Package) dk,d iwoz fufezr laxzg (Built-in Library) gksrk gsa 9. PL/SQL jhfrxr (Procedural) rfkk olrqxr (Object-Oriented) nksuksa izdkj dh Hkk"kkvksa dk lefkzu (Supprot) djrh gasa 10. PL/SQL esa =kqfv;ksa ds izcu/u dh lqfo/k Hkh miyc/ gksrh gsa fdlh izdkj dh =kqfviw.kz ifjflfkfr mriuu gksus ij blesa mfpr lans'k iznf'kzr fd, tkrs gsaa mijksdr lhkh fo'ks"krkvks a ds dkj.k PL/SQL vr;ar mi;ksxh Hkk"kk gsa vius bu xq.kks a ds }kjk PL/SQL jhfrxr Hkk"kkvks a rfkk MkVkcsl rduhdks a ds chp dh nwjh dks lekir djrh gsa vr% MkVkcsl ij dk;z djus ds fy, ;g vr;ar ykhkdkjh gsa

165 11.3 SQL rfkk PL/SQL esa vurj (Difference Between SQL and PL/SQL) ; fi] SQL fdlh MkVkcsl ij dk;z djus ds fy,,d mi;ksxh Hkk"kk gs] ijurq blesa ikbz tkus okyh dfe;ksa ds dkj.k MkVkcsl izksxzkfeax ds fy, bldk cgqr vf/d iz;ksx lahko ugh gsa SQL dh dfe;ksa dks nwj djus ds fy, blesa jhfrxr (Procedural) izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk dh {kerkvksa dks la;ksftr (Combine) djds PL/SQL dks fodflr fd;k x;k gsa vr% PL/SQL dks SQL dk iz/ku leqpp; (Super Set) dgk tk ldrk gsa pw fd] PL/SQL dk fodkl SQL ds vk/kj ij gh fd;k x;k gs] vr% bu nksuksa esa vusd lekurk, gksrh gsaa ijarq PL/SQL esa jhfrxr Hkk"kk ds xq.k Hkh lekfgr fd, x, gsa vr% blesa dqn,slh fo'ks"krk, Hkh gs] tks SQL esa ugh ikbz tkrha PL/SQL rfkk SQL ds varj dks fueufyf[kr rkfydk esa Li"V fd;k x;k gs% PL/SQL izksxzkfeax dk ifjp; Ø- SQL 1. bldk iwjk uke 'Structured Query Language' gsa 2. SQL esa jhfrxr izksxzkfeax dh dksbz {kerk ugha gksrha 3. SQL esa fdlh Hkh izdkj dh czk fpax vfkok ywfiax dh dksbz lqfo/k miyc/ ugha gsa 4. SQL esa,d le; ij dsoy,d gh dfku vkwjsdy batu dks Hkstk tkrk gsa blls fø;kuo;u esa yxusokyk le; c<+ tkrk gsa 5. SQL es a osfj;scyl (Variables) dk iz;ksx lehko ugha gksrk gsa 6. SQL esa fdlh Hkh izdkj dh x.kuk djus ds fy, vkwjsdy batu dh vko';drk gksrh gsa 7. SQL esa =kqfv;ksa ds O;oLFkkiu dh dksbz lqfo/k ugha gksrh gsa dksbz =kqfviw.kz flfkfr mriuu gksus ij vkwjsdy batu gh bls lahkkyrk gsa Ø- PL/SQL 1. bldk iwjk uke 'Procedural Lauguage/SQL' gsa 2. PL/SQL jhfrxr izksxzkfeax dk iw.kz lefkzu (Support) djrh gsa 3. PL/SQL czk fpax rfkk ywfiax dh iw.kz lqfo/k gksrh gsa 4. PL/SQL esa,d le; ij dfkuksa dk,d iwjk CykWd vkwjsdy batu dks Hkstk tk ldrk gsa,slk djus ij fø;kuo;u dh xfr c<+ tkrh gs,oa le; dh cpr gksrh gsa 5. PL/SQL esa dfkuksa ds ifj.kke dks osfj;scy esa lafpr djds vko';drk ds vuqlkj iqu% budk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa 6. PL/SQL esa lhkh izdkj dh x.kuk, vkwjsdy batu dh lgk;rk ds fcuk gh dh tk ldrh gs aa 7. PL/SQL es a =kqfv;ks a ds O;oLFkkiu dh {kerk fodflr dh xbz gsa dksbz =kqfviw.kz flfkfr mriuu gksus ij PL/SQL Lor% gh blls lacaf/r lans'k iznf'kzr djrk gsa 11.4 PL/SQL CykWd lajpuk : (PL/SQL Block Structure) PL/SQL,d iw.kzr% jhfrxr (Procedural) izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk gs] ftles a izr;sd izksxzke dks,d fof'k"v lajpuk ds vuqlkj cuk;k tkrk gsa bl lajpuk dks PL/SQL dh CykWd lajpuk (Block Structure of PL/SQL) dgrs ga SA CykWd (Block), fdlh Hkh PL/SQL izksxzke dh ewyhkwr bdkbz (Basic Unit) gsa izr;sd izksxzke PL/SQL dksm ds fofhkuu dfkuks a ls feydj curk gsa dfkuks a (Statements) ds,d rkfdzd (Logical) lewg dks PL/SQL es a CykWd dgk tkrk gsa,d PL/SQL CykWd es a fueufyf[kr Hkkx gksrs gs% 165

166 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy (A) (B) (C) (D)?kks"k.kkRed Hkkx (Declaration Section) fø;kuo;u Hkkx (Execution Section) viokn fu;a=k.k Hkkx (Exception Handling Section) lekiu Hkkx (End Section) izksxzke dks fø;kfuor djus ij buesa ls izr;sd Hkkx,d fof'k"v dk;z dks iw.kz djrk gsa bl izdkj ;s lhkh Hkkx,d lkfk feydj dk;z djrs gsa rfkk mfpr ifj.kke iznku djrs gsa PL/SQL dh CykWd lajpuk bl izdkj gksrh gs % DECLARE /*?kks"k.kkred (Declarative) HkkxA osfj;scy (Variable)] dkwulvuv (Constant)] dlzj (Cursor) br;kfn dks?kksf"kr (Declare) djus ds fy, */ BEGIN /* PL/SQL izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u ls lacaf/r dfkuksa ds fy, */ EXECEPTION /* izksxzke fø;kuo;u ds nksjku mriuu gksus okyh =kqfviw.kz ifjflfkfr;ks a ds O;oLFkkiu ds fy, */ END /* PL/SQL CykWd dk lekiu djus ds fy, */ PL/SQL CykWd ds mijksdr lhkh Hkkxksa dks ;gk le>k;k x;k gs% (A)?kks"k.kkRed Hkkx (Declaration Section) : fdlh CykWd esa iz;ksx fd, tkus okys lhkh osfj;scy (Variables) dkwulvuv (Constants) br;kfn dks bl Hkkx esa?kksf"kr (Declare) fd;k tkrk gsa blds ckn izksxzke esa dgha Hkh budk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g fdlh Hkh PL/SQL CykWd dk lcls igyk Hkkx gksrk gsa bls DECLARE 'kcn ds }kjk ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa (B) fø;kuo;u Hkkx (Execution Section) : bl Hkkx esa SQL rfkk PL/SQL dksm ds fø;kuo;u ls lacaf/r os lhkh dfku fy[ks tkrs gas] ftuds }kjk rkfydk (Table) ds MkVk (Data) ij fdlh izfø;k dks iw.kz djuk gsa bl Hkkx dk izkjehk 'BEGIN' 'kcn ds }kjk gksrk gsa fø;kuo;u Hkkx ds fy, fueufyf[kr ckrksa dk è;ku j[kuk vko';d gs % fdlh Hkh PL/SQL izksxzke esa dsoy 'SELECT', 'INSERT', 'UPDATE' rfkk 'DELETE' br;kfn MkVk O;oFkkiu (Manipulation) dfkuksa dk gh iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa 2. MkVk ifjhkk"kk dfkuksa (Data Definition Statements) tsls 'CREATE', 'DROP' vfkok 'ALTER' dk iz;ksx ugha fd;k tk ldrka 3. fø;kuo;u Hkkx esa fofhkuu damh'kuy (Conditional), czkfpax (Branching),oa ywfiax (Looping) dfkuksa rfkk fvªxlz (Triggers) br;kfn dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa (bu lhkh dh ppkz vkxs folrkj ls dh xbz gsa) (C)viokn fu;a=k.k Hkkx (Exception Handling Section) : PL/SQL izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u ds nksjku fofhkuu ifjflfkfr;ksa ds vuqlkj =kqfv;k mriuu gksus dh lahkkouk Hkh gksrh gsa bu =kqfv;ksa ds fu;a=k.k,oa O;oLFkkiu ls lacafèkr funsz'kksa dks PL/SQL CykWd lajpuk ds bl Hkkx esa fy[kk tkrk gsa bl Hkkx dk izkjehk 'EXCEPTION' 'kcn ds }kjk gksrk gsa (D) lekiu Hkkx (End Section) : ;g CykWd dk vfure Hkkx gs] tks CykWd dks lekir djus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, 'kcn 'END' fy[krs gsa rfkk blds var esa v¼z&fojke (Semi-Colon) fpug (;) yxk;k tkrk gsa

167 izr;sd CykWd esa mijksdr esa ls dsoy fø;kuo;u Hkkx dk iz;ksx vfuok;z gksrk gsa vu; lhkh Hkkxksa dk iz;ksx osdfyid gsa,d le; ij,d laiw.kz CykWd dks,d lkfk vkwjsdy batu esa Hkstk tkrk gsa fdlh CykWd dks fø;kfuor djus dk dk;z fueufyf[kr nks izdkj ls fd;k tkrk gsa 1. CykWd ds laiw.kz dksm dks SQL/PLUS esa fy[kdj '/' dek.m ds }kjk fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa 2. dksm dks fdlh iqkby esa lafpr djds ml iqkby ds }kjk Hkh izksxzke dks fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa,slk djus ds fy, fy[kk tkrk gsa ;g dk;z ' ' ds lkfk 'run' fy[kdj vfkok 'Start' dek.m ds }kjk Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa 11.5 PL/SQL dk fø;kuo;u okrkoj.k (Execution Environment of PL/SQL) PL/SQL dfkuksa ds fø;kuo;u dk dk;z PL/SQL batu }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa PL/SQL batu Hkh vkwjsdy batu esa gh flfkr gksrk gsa PL/SQL dk,d laiw.kz CykWd fdlh izfø;k ds fy, vkwjsdy batu dks Hkstk tkrk gsa bl CykWd esa SQL rfkk PL/SQL nksuksa ls lacaf/r funsz'k (Instrutions),oa dfku (Statements) gks ldrs gasa CykWd ds jhfrxr (Procedural) dfku PL/SQL batu ds ikl Hkst fn, tkrs gsaa SQL dfkuksa ds fø;kuo;u dk dk;z SQL fø;kuo;d (Executor) }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa ;g fø;kuo;d Hkh vkwjsdy batu esa gh flfkr gksrk gsa bu lhkh dks fueufyf[kr fp=k esa le>k;k x;k gs% PL/SQL izksxzkfeax dk ifjp; PL/SQL fø;kuo;u okrkoj.k fdlh,d CykWd esa j[ks x, lhkh SQL dfkuksa dks fø;kfuor djus ds fy, vkwjsdy batu dks dsoy,d ckj gh Call djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa vr% blls izfø;k dh xfr (Processing Speed) vr;f/d c<+ tkrh gs D;ksafd ;fn SQL dfkuksa dks CykWd esa u j[kk x;k gks] rks izr;sd dfku ds fø;kuo;u ds fy, izr;sd ckj vkwjsdy batu dks Call djuk vko';d gksrk gsa blesa le; vf/ d yxrk gs,oa xfr de gksrh gs] ftlls izn'kzu (Performance) Hkh izhkkfor gksrk gsa 11.6 PL/SQL o.kzekyk lewg (PL/SQL Character Set) PL/SQL,d izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk gsa vu; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa dh gh rjg blesa Hkh fofhkuu v{kjksa (Alphabates), vadksa (Numbers) rfkk fpugksa (Symbols) dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa bu lhkh dks lfeefyr :i ls PL/SQL o.kzekyk lewg (PL/SQL Charecer Set) dgk tkrk gsa bl lewg esa fueufyf[kr rro gksrs gs % (a) Lower case v{kj (a-z) (b) Upper case v{kj (A-Z) 167

168 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 168 (c) vad (0-9) (d) fo'ks"k fpug ([], {}, (), +, -, *, 1, =, $, %, #, ",?, &) 11.7 PL/SQL O;k[;k (PL/SQL Comments),d izksxzke esa fofhkuu dfkuksa] osfj;scy] dkwulvsuv~l br;kfn dk iz;ksx fofhkuu mn~ns';ksa ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn budh la[;k cgqr vf/d gks] rks dhkh&dhkh buds iz;ksx dk mn~ns'; Li"V djus ds fy, budh O;k[;k djuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;g dk;z esa PL/SQL O;k[;kRed dfkuksa (Comments) ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa O;k[;k (Comments) ds fy, iz;qdr okd;ksa dks /* rfkk */ ds chp fy[kk tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% /* <PL/SQL Comment Line > */ mnkgj.k % /* This is a PL/SQL Block */ Comments ds }kjk izksxzke dks le>uk ljy gks tkrk gsa budk,d vu; ykhk ;g gs fd vkwjsdy batu budh tk p ugha djrka vr% buds dkj.k izksxzke es a dksbz =kqfv mriuu gksus dh lahkkouk ugha gksrha ijurq bl ckr dk è;ku j[kuk vko';d gs fd Hkwy&o'k dksm ls lacaf/r dksbz dfku '/*...*/' ds chp u fy[k fn;k tk,] vu;fkk batu mls Hkh misf{kr (Ignore) dj nsxk] ftlls izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u es a dksbz lel;k vfkok =kqfv mriuu gks ldrh gs vfkok v'kq¼ ifj.kke Hkh izkir gks ldrs gsa ;fn O;k[;k (Comment) dsoy,d gh iafdr dh gks] rks bls '--' ls izkjehk djds Hkh fy[kk tk ldrk gsa 11.8 PL/SQL osfj;scy (PL/SQL Variables) fdlh dfku ds ifj.kkeksa dks lafpr djus vfkok fofhkuu ekuksa (Values) ds lkfk dk;z djus ds fy, PL/SQL esa osfj;scy (Variables) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ^osfj;scy*,slh vlfkk;h ek=kk, (Quantities) gsa] ftudk eku izksxzke fø;kuo;u ds nksjku fdruh ckj Hkh ifjofrzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa,d izksxzke esa vko';drkuqlkj vusd osfj;scy (Variables) dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa izr;sd osfj;scy dks igpkuus ds fy, mls,d uke fn;k tkrk gsa uke ds lkfk gh izr;sd osfj;scy dks?kksf"kr djrs le; ;g Li"V djuk Hkh vko';d gksrk gs fd mlesa fdl izdkj dk MkVk lafpr fd;k tk,xka bls osfj;scy dk MkVk Vkbi dgrs gsa PL/SQL esa fdlh osfj;scy dk iz;ksx djrs le; fueufyf[kr fu;eksa dk è;ku j[kuk vko';d gs% 1. osfj;scy dk uke vf/dre 30 o.kk±s (Characters) dk gks ldrk gsa 2. uke dk izfke o.kz,d v{kj (Alphabet) gksuk vfuok;z gsa 3. ;fn vkjf{kr 'kcnksa (Reserved Words) dk iz;ksx osfj;scy ds uke ds :i esa djuk gks] rks bugsa [ ] (Double Quotes) ds chp fy[kuk vfuok;z gksrk gsa (olrqr% lkeku; in~/ fr ;gh gs fd vkjf{kr 'kcnksa dk iz;ksx osfj;scy ukeksa ds :i esa ugha fd;k tkrka) 4. ;fn,d ls vf/d osfj;scy (Variables) dks,d gh iafdr esa fy[kk tk jgk gs] rks mugsa ',' (Comma) ds }kjk,d&nwljs ls vyx fd;k tkrk gsa 5. PL/SQLHkk"kk dsl lsfulfvo (Case-Sensitive) ^ugha* gsa vr% Marks rfkk MARKS nksuksa dks gh blesa,d gh osfj;scy ekuk tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % osfj;scy ukeksa (Variable -Names) ds dqn mnkgj.k fueufyf[kr gsa % Length, X123, Marks, Address br;kfna 11.9 PL/SQL MkVk izdkj (PL/SQL Data Types) fdlh Hkh osfj;scy (Variable) dk iz;ksx djrs le; ;g Li"V djuk vko';d gksrk gs fd mlesa fdl izdkj dk MkVk lafpr fd;k tk,xka ;g dk;z osfj;scy uke dks?kksf"kr (Declare) djrs le;

169 dqn fof'k"v 'kcnksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gs] ftudk,d fuf'pr vfkz gksrk gsa bugsa MkVk izdkj (Data Type) dgrs gasa PL/SQL dk vk/kj SQL gh gs aa vr% PL/SQL ds vf/dka'k MkVk Vkbi ogh gsa] tks SQL esa iz;ksx fd, tkrs gsa tsls % Number, Date, Char br;kfna PL/SQL izksxzkfeax dk ifjp; bu lhkh dh ppkz vè;k;&4 esa dh tk pqdh gsa vr% ;gk dsoy mu MkVk izdkjksa dh ppkz dh tk jgh gs] tks PL/SQL esa gh ik, tkrs gsa ;s MkVk izdkj fueufyf[kr gsa % 1. Boolean : budk iz;ksx lr; vfkok vlr; (True or False) eku j[kus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa 2. Natural : bl MkVk Vkbi esa 0 ls 2, 147, 483, 647 ds chp dksbz Hkh izkñfrd la[;k (Natural Number) j[kh tk ldrh gsa 3. Binary Integer : bues a 2, 147, 483, 648 ls 2, 147, 483, 647 rd eku j[kk tk ldrk gsa 4. %TYPE : PL/SQL esa fdlh rkfydk (Table) ds dkwye (Column) dk eku Hkh osfj;scy esa j[kuk lahko gsa ;fn osfj;scy dk MkVk Vkbi ogh j[kuk gks] tks blls lacaf/ r dkwye dk uke gs] rks blds fy, PL/SQL esa '%TYPE' dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % Len Hospital.length%type ;gk Len,d osfj;scy gs] Hospital,d Vscy rfkk Length blds,d Column dk uke gsa Vscy dk fuekz.k djrs le; Length dkwye ds fy, tks MkVk izdkj fu/kzfjr fd;k x;k gks] osfj;scy 'Len' dk MkVk izdkj Hkh ogh gks tk,xka 5. %Rowtype : %Rowtype, fdlh osfj;scy ds fy,,d fefjr MkVk Vkbi dk fuekz.k djrk gs] tks fdlh rkfydk (Table) dh Row dk izdkj gksrk gsa mnkgj.k % Emp person % rowtype ;gk Emp uked osfj;scy dks Person rkfydk ds fdlh Hkh fjdkmz (Record) ds laiw.kz MkV dk lewg izkir gksxka osfj;scy dks eku iznku djuk (Assigning Values to Variables) fdlh Hkh osfj;scy ds mi;ksx dk eq[; mn~ns'; mlesa dksbz eku j[kuk gksrk gs] rkfd osfj;scy dh lgk;rk ls eku dks lqjf{kr j[kk tk lds,oa ;g vko';drkuqlkj izksxzke esa le; ij miyc/ gks ldsa PL/SQL esa fdlh osfj;scy dks,d eku iznku djus dk dk;z fueufyf[kr nks izdkj ls fd;k tk ldrk gs% 1. vlkbuesav vkwijsvj (Assignment Operator) ds }kjk 2. 'SELECT... INTO' dfku ds }kjk bu nksuksa fof/;ksa dks ;gk le>k;k x;k gs % 1. vlkbuesav vkwijsvj }kjk μ PL/SQL esa vlkbuesav vkwijsvj (:=) dh lgk;rk ls fdlh osfj;scy esa dksbz eku fufnz"v fd;k tk ldrk gsa,slk djrs le; osfj;scy dk uke vkwijsvj ds ck;ha vksj,oa eku (Value) nkfguh vksj fy[kk tkuk pkfg,a budk fluvsdl fuuufyf[kr gs% Variable := Value; bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs % DECLARE 169

170 a vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy total Number(10); BEGIN total := 50+30; ;fn gesa iz;ksdrk (User) ls dksbz eku izkir djuk gks rks blds fy, vkwijsvj ds nkfguh vksj eku ds LFkku ij '&Variable Name' fy[kk tkrk gsa total := &total; ;gk iz;ksdrk }kjk fn;k x;k eku csjh;scy total esa j[kk tk jgk gsa 2. SELECT... INTO }kjk μ PL/SQL dh lgk;rk ds fdlh MkVkcsl Vscy dk dksbz eku vfkok fdlh Dosjh (Query) ls izkir ifj.kkeksa dks Hkh fdlh osfj;scy esa fufnz"v (Assign) fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, PL/SQL esa 'SELECT...INTO' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% SELECT <column_name>into <Variable_Name> From <Table_Name>WHERE<Condition>; mnkgj.k % SELECT Name INTO S_Name FROM STUDENTS WHERE Roll_No=111; OUTPUT : mijksdr mnkgj.k ds }kjk STUDENTS uked Vscy ds Name uked LraHk (Column) ls og eku osfj;scy S_Name esa fufnz"v (Assingn) gks tk,xk] ftlds fy, Vscy ds Roll_No LraHk dk eku '111' gksa dkwulvuv (Contants) ge tkurs gsa] fd PL/SQL esa fofhkuu eku vfkok fdlh Dosjh ds ifj.kke lafpr djus ds fy, osfj;scyl (Variables) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu osfj;scy esa fufnz"v fd, x, eku vko';drk ds vuqlkj izksxzke esa le; le; ij ifjofrzr gksrs jgrs gsaa ijarq dhkh&dhkh dqn,slh ek=kkvksa (Quantities) dh vko';drk gksrh gs] ftuesa lafpr eku lnso flfkj cus jgsaa vfkkzr~ muesa dksbz ifjorzu u gksa blds fy, PL/SQL esa dkwulvuv~l (Constants) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh dkwulvuv dks?kksf"kr djus dh izfø;k,oa fu;e ogh gs a] tks fdlh osfj;scy ds fy, gksrs gs aa bl izfø;k es a varj dsoy bruk gs fd dkwulvuv (Constant) ds fy, 'CONSTANT' ^dh&cksmz* dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs rfkk bls ftl LFkku ij?kksf"kr (Declare) fd;k tk jgk gs] ogha ij blds fy,,d eku iznku djuk Hkh vfuok;z gksrk gsa PL/SQL CykWd es a fdlh Hkh vu; LFkku ij bl eku dks ifjofrzr dj ikuk lahko ugha gksrka dkwulvuv ds iz;ksx dk fluvsdl,oa mnkgj.k fueufyf[kr gs % <constant_name>constant<datatype><size>:=<value>; mnkgj.k % PI Constant Number (4,2):= 3.14; PL/SQL izksxzke fu;a=k.k lajpuk (PL/SQL Program Control Structure) fdlh Hkh izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk es a izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u dh rkfdzd vk/kj ij (Logically) fu;af=kr fd;k tkrk gsa lkeku;r% izksxzke dk fø;kuo;u izkjahk gksus ij blds dksm ls lacaf/r lhkh dfku,d fuf'pr Øe es a fø;kfuor gksrs gs aa ijarq izksxzkfeax lnso gh bruh ljy ugha gksrha dqn tfvy izfø;kvks a,oa ifjflfkfr;ks ds vuqlkj izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u dks fhkuu&fhkuu izdkj ls fu;af=kr djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa rkfdzd

171 vk/kj ij fd, tkus okys bl izdkj ds izksxzke fu;a=k.k ds fy;s dqn lajpukvks a dks fuekz.k fd;k x;k gs] ftugs a izksxzke fu;a=k.k lajpuk (Program Control Structure) dgk tkrk gsa vu; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa dh gh rjg PL/SQL esa Hkh izksxzke fu;a=k.k fueufyf[kr rhu izdkj dk gksrk gs% (a) Øfed fu;a=k.k (Sequential Control) (b) pquko fu;a=k.k (Selection Control) (c) iqujko`frr fu;a=k.k (Iteration Control) bu lhkh dks ;gk folrkj ls le>k;k x;k gs% (a) Øfed fu;a=k.k (Sequential Control) ;g izksxzke fu;a=k.k dh lokzf/d ljy lajpuk gsa Øfed fu;a=k.k esa izksxzke ds lhkh dfku,d ljy Øe esa fø;kfuor gksrs gsaa izksxzke dk fø;kuo;u dksm ds lcls igys dfku ls izkjehk gksrk gs rfkk lhkh dfkuksa dk,d Øe esa fø;kuo;u gks tkus ij izksxzke lekir gks tkrk gsa Øfed fu;a=k.k dks fueufyf[kr fp=k esa iznf'kzr fd;k x;k gs % PL/SQL izksxzkfeax dk ifjp; Øfed fu;a=k.k bls fueufyf[kr PL/SQL izksxzke mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>k tk ldrk gs% mnkgj.k % mijksdr izksxzke esa nks osfj;scy iz;ksx fd, x, gsaa buesa Employee uked Vscy ls MkVk fy;k tk jgk gsa name osfj;scy dk MkVk izdkj Employee Vscy ds Name LraHk ds leku rfkk Salary dk MkVk izdkj Vscy ds Sal LraHk ds leku gksxka 'SELECT...INTO' dfku esa WHERE Clause ds }kjk Vscy ls og fjdkmz izkir fd;k tk jgk gs] ftlesa sal dkwye dk eku lcls vf/d gksa bl fjdkmz ds Ename,oa Sal LrHkksa ds eku Øe'k% Name rfkk Salary osfj;scy esa fufnz"v fd, tk jgs gasa PL/SQL esa Out-Put dks iznf'kzr djus ds fy, 171

172 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 'dbms_output' isdst dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blds 'put_line' iqad'ku ds }kjk OUT-PUT iznf'kzr fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh osfj;scy ds eku rfkk flvªax dks tksm+us (Concatenation) ds fy, ' ' dk iz;ksx gksrk gsa vr% dfku & dbms_output.put_line(name 'has Maximum Salary:' Salary) ds }kjk lozizfke Name osfj;scy dk eku] blds i'pkr~ flvªax 'Has Maximum Salary:' rfkk var esa Salary osfj;scy dk eku iznf'kzzr gksxka è;ku jgs fd Name rfkk Salary ds ;s eku 'SELECT...INTO' dfku dh WHERE Clause esa iz;qdr 'krz ds vuqlkj Vscy ls izkir djds bu nksuksa osfj;scy esa fufnz"v fd, x, gsaa (b) pquko fu;a=k.k (Selection Control) Øfed fu;a=k.k esa lhkh dfku,d fuf'pr Øe esa fø;kfuor fd, tkrs gsaa vr% ;gk fdlh 'krz (Condition) dh vko';drk ugha gksrha ijarq] dhkh&dhkh fofhkuu 'krk±s ds vk/kj ij,d gh izksxzke dks fhkuu&fhkuu izdkj ls fø;kfuor djuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;g dk;z ^pquko fu;a=k.k* }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bl fofèk esa lozizfke fdlh 'krz (Condition) dh tk p dh tkrh gsa bldk ifj.kke lr; (TRUE) gksus ij izksxzke dk,d fof'k"v Hkkx fø;kfuor gksrk gsa blh izdkj ifj.kke vlr; (FALSE) gksus ij,d vu; Hkkx fø;kfuor fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh Hkh flfkfr esa bu nks esa ls dksbz,d Hkkx gh fø;kfuor fd;k tkrk gsa pw fd] ;gk 'krz ds ifj.kke ds vk/kj ij izksxzke esa fø;kfuor fd, tkus okys Hkkx dk pquko fd;k tkrk gs] vr% bl fof/ dks pquko fu;a=k.k dgrs gsaa bls fueufyf[kr fp=k esa le>k;k x;k gs % pquko&fua;=k.k PL/SQL esa pquko&fu;a=k.k ds fy, 'IF...ELSE...END IF' lajpuk dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% 172 IF <Condition> THEN <Statements for True Block> ELSE <Statements for False Block> END IF;

173 a 'IF... ELSE... END IF' lajpuk esa lozizfke 'IF'ds lkfk og 'krz fy[kh tkrh gs] ftls tk puk gsa bldk ifj.kke lr; gksus ij ftu dfkuksa dks fø;kfuor djuk gs] mugsa 'THEN' ds ckn fy[kk tkrk gsa blh izdkj ifj.kke vlr; gksus ij ftu dfkuksa dks fø;kfuor djuk gks] mugsa 'ELSE' ds ckn fy[kk tkrk gsa ;g lajpuk 'END IF' ds }kjk lekir dh tkrh gsa ;g è;ku j[kus ;ksx; ckr gs fd 'ELSE' Hkkx dk iz;ksx osdfyid gksrk gsa bldh vko';drk u gksus ij dsoy 'IF...ENDIF'dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa 'IF... ELSE... END IF' dks fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs% mnkgj.k % PL/SQL izksxzkfeax dk ifjp; ;fn,d ls vf/d 'krk± s dh tk p djuk gks] rks blds fy,,d ls vf/d 'IF...ELSE' dfkuks dks,d lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) djds Hkh fy[kk tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% If<condition1> THEN <statement1> ELSIF<condition2> THEN <statement2> ELSIF<condition3> THEN <statement3> ELSE <statement> ENDIF bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>k;k x;k gs% 173

174 a vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % (c) iqujko`frr fu;a=k.k (Iteration Control) fdlh 'krz (Condition) dh lr;rk vfkok vlr;rk ds vk/kj ij izksxzke fø;kuo;u dks fu;af=kr djus ds fy, pquko fu;a=k.k (Selection Control) lajpuk dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ijurq] blds }kjk 'krz ds lr; vfkok vlr; gksus ij izksxzke dk dksbz fof'k"v Hkkx dsoy,d ckj gh fø;kfuor gksrk gsa dhkh&dhkh,slh flfkfr;k gksrh gs a] ftues izksxzke dfkuks a ds fø;kuo;u dks rc rd nksgjkuk vko';d gksrk gs] tc rd 'krz vlr; (False) u gks tk,a bl mís'; dks iw.kz djus ds fy, izksxzkfeax es a iqujko`frr fu;a=k.k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa iqujko`frr fu;a=k.k ds fy, iz;qdr gksus okys CykWd dks ^ywi* (Loop) dgrs gs aa PL/SQL esa iqujko`frr fu;a=k.k ds fy, fueufyf[kr ywi miyc/ gksrs gsa % (i) ljy ywi (Simple Loop) (ii) Ogkby ywi (While Loop) 174 (iii) iqkwj ywi (For Loop) bu lhkh dks ;gk mnkgj.k lfgr le>k;k x;k gs % (i) ljy ywi (Simple Loop),d ljy ywi] izksxzke ds fdlh fof'k"v Hkkx dh iqujko`frr djus ds fy, iz;ksx dh tkus okyh ljyre lajpuk gsa bls ^dh&omz* (Key-word) 'Loop' ls izkjehk fd;k tkrk gs rfkk bldk lekiu 'END LOOP' ds }kjk gksrk gsa

175 bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% LOOP <Loop_Body> /* Statements */ END LOOP; 'LOOP' rfkk 'END LOOP' ds chp fy[ks Hkkx dks 'Loop Body' dgrs gsaa bl Hkkx esa fy[ks x, dfkuksa dks izksxzke nksgjkrk (Repeat djrk) jgrk gsa ijurq ;gk ;g Li"V djuk Hkh vko';d gksrk gs fd ywi dh iqujko`frr fdruh ckj vfkok fdl 'krz ds vlr; gksus rd djuk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, 'END LOOP' dfku ds igys 'EXIT WHEN' dfku ds lkfk dksbz 'krz (Condition) fy[kh tkrh gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% PL/SQL izksxzkfeax dk ifjp; mnkgj.k : Loop <Loop_Body> EXIT WHEN <condition> END LOOP; 'EXIT WHEN' ds lkfk nh xbz 'krz tc rd lr; (True) u gks tk,] rc rd ywi dh iqujko`frr gksrh jgrh gsa ;fn 'EXIT WHEN' dk iz;ksx u fd;k tk,] rks blls,d vuar (Infinite) ywi fufezr gksxk] tks yxkrkj nksgjk;k tkrk jgsxka vr% bls lekir djus ds fy, dksbz damh'ku nsuk vr;ur vko';d gsa ljy ywi dks fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k es a le>k;k x;k gs % (ii) Ogkby ywi : (While Loop) izksxzke ds fdlh fof'k"v Hkkx dh iqujko`frr ds fy, ljy ywi dh gh rjg Ogkby ywi dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl ywi esa izr;sd ckj CykWd dh iqujko`frr ds igys 'krz dh tk p dh tkrh gs rfkk bldk ifj.kke lr; (True) gksus ij gh ywi fø;kfuor gksrk gsa Ogkby ywi dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % WHILE <condition> Loop <loop_body> END LOOP; 175

176 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % (iii) iqkwj ywi : (For Loop) iqkwj ywi] PL/SQL dh,d vu; ywi lajpuk gsa bldh lgk;rk ls iw.kkzdksa (Integers) dh,d J` [kyk (Row) dks of.kzr (Specify) fd;k tkrk gs rfkk bl J` [kyk ds izr;sd iw.kkzd ds fy, dfkuksa ds Øe dks fø;kfuor fd;k tkrk gsa iqkwj ywi dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % FOR <Variable> IN [REVERSE] <start>..<end> Loop <Loop_Body> END LOOP; 176 ;gk <Variable> dksbz osfj;scy gs] ftldk iz;ksx ywi dh iqujko`frr dks fxuus (Counting) ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa <start> ds }kjk ywi J` [kyk dk izkjafhkd eku rfkk <end> ds }kjk vafre eku crk;k tkrk gsa iqwkj ywi <start> eku ls <end> eku rd vkjksgh Øe esa fø;kfuor gksrk gsa ;fn bls <end> ls <start> rd (vojksgh Øe esa) fø;kfuor djuk gks] rks blds fy, 'REVERSE' dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vu;fkk] 'REVERSE' dk iz;ksx osdfyid gsa iqkwj ywi dks fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs%

177 mnkgj.k % PL/SQL izksxzkfeax dk ifjp; mnkgj.k % iqkwj ywi esa iz;qdr <Variable> dks?kksf"kr djuk vko';d ugha gksrka lkfk gh ;g Hkh è;ku j[kus ;ksx; ckr gs fd iqkwj ywi esa <Variable> dk eku izr;sd ckj 1 gh c<+rk gsa bls c<+kus ds fy, dksbz vu; eku ugha fn;k tk ldrka fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa iqkwj ywi dks REVERSE ds lkfk le>k;k x;k gs % GOTO dfku (GOTO Statement) fdlh 'krz ds vk/kj ij izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u dk Øe ifjofrzr djus ds fy, PL/SQL esa 'GOTO' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl dfku ds }kjk izksxzke ds Øe dks fdlh fof'k"v dfku vfkok CykWd ij Hkstk tk ldrk gsa blds fy, <<user_defined_name>> dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;gk <<...>> ds chp iz;ksdrk }kjk ifjhkkf"kr dksbz uke vfkok 'kcn gksrk gsa bls ml dfku vfkok CykWd ds iwoz fy[kk tkrk gs] tgk izksxzke fø;kuo;u ds Øe dks viofrzr (Divert) djuk gsa ftl 'krz Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- PL/SQLls vki D;k le>rs gs a \ 2- çksxzke fu;u=k.k fdrus çdkj ds gksrs gsa \ 3- pquko fu;u=k.k D;k gksrk gs \ 177

178 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy ds vk/kj ij ;g viorzu fd;k tkuk gs] ml LFkku ij GOTO ds lkfk ;g <<user_defined_name>> iqu% fy[kk tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% GOTO <user_defined_name>; bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk Li"V fd;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % è;ku j[ksa % fdlh iz;ksdrk lans'k (User Message) dks iznf'kzr djus ds fy,,d esfkm (Method) dh vko';drk gksrh gsa 'DBMS_OUTPUT',d isdst (Package) gs] ftlesa vusd izkslhtj (Procedures),oa iqad'ku (Functions) gksrs gasa bl isdst ds Put_Line iqad'ku }kjk lans'k iznf'kzr fd;s tkrs gsaa 'put_line' iqad'ku esa isjkehvj (Parameter) ds :i esa Hksts x, lans'k dks iznf'kzr djus ds fy, 'SQL * PLUS' }kjk 'SERVEROUTPUT' uked isjkehvj dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vr% lans'k dks iznf'kzr djus ds fy, 'SERVEROUTPUT' dks ON j[kuk vko';d gsa bls ON vfkok OFF djus dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% 178 SET SERVEROUTPUT [OFF/ON] mnkgj.k % SET SERVER OUTPUT ON; ;fn SERVEROUTPUT 'OFF' gs] rks fdlh PL/SQL dfku dk vkmviqv iznf'kzr ugha gksrka

179 lkjka'k (Summary) PL/SQL Hkk"kk] SQL dk folrkfjr :i gsa bl Hkk"kk esa SQL dh fo'ks"krkvksa ds lkfk jhfrxr (Procedural) Hkk"kk dh fo'ks"krkvksa dks la;ksftr fd;k x;k gs] ftlls ;g SQL ls vf/d 'kfdr'kkyh,oa mi;ksxh Hkk"kk cu xbz gsa PL/SQL,d fodkl midj.k (Development Tool) gs] tks MkVk ds dq'ky O;oLFkkiu es a lgk;rk iznku djrk gsa PL/SQL esa funsz'kksa dk,d iwjk CykWd (Block),d lkfk vkwjsdy batu (Oracle Engine) ds ikl Hkstk tk ldrk gsa blls usvodz ij ;krk;kr (Traffic) esa deh vkrh gs rfkk funsz'kksa ds fø;kuo;u dh xfr (Execution Speed) Hkh c<+rh gsa PL/SQL esa fy[kk x;k dksm (Code)] iw.kzr% IysViQkeZ bafmisumasv (Platform Independent) gksrk gsa vfkkzr~ fdlh,d gkmzos;j,oa vkwijsfvax fllve ij fy[ks x, dksm dks fdlh Hkh ifjorzu ds fcuk fdlh vu; gkmzos;j,oa vkwijsfvax fllve ij Hkh fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa SQL dh dfe;ksa dks nwj djus ds fy, blesa jhfrxr (Procedural) izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk dh {kerkvksa dks la;ksftr (Combine) djds PL/SQL dks fodflr fd;k x;k gsa PL/SQL,d iw.kzr% jhfrxr (Procedural) izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk gs] ftlesa izr;sd izksxzke dks,d fof'k"v lajpuk ds vuqlkj cuk;k tkrk gsa bl lajpuk dks PL/SQL dh CykWd lajpuk (Block Structure of PL/SQL) dgrs gasa fdlh CykWd esa iz;ksx fd;s tkus okys lhkh osfj;scy] dkwulvuv br;kfn dks?kks"k.kkred Hkkx esa?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa bl Hkkx dk izkjehk 'DECLARE' 'kcn ls gksrk gsa PL/SQL izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u ds nksjku mriuu =kqfv;ksa ds O;oLFkkiu ls lacaf/r dfku viokn fu;a=k.k Hkkx esa fy[ks tkrs gsaa bldk izkjahk 'EXCEPITION' ls gksrk gsa lekiu Hkkx CykWd dk vfure Hkkx gs] tks CykWd dks lekir djus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, 'kcn 'END' fy[krs gsa rfkk blds var esa v¼z&fojke (Semi- Colon) fpug (;) yxk;k tkrk gsa ^osfj;scy*,slh vlfkk;h ek=kk, (Quantities) gsa] ftudk eku izksxzke fø;kuo;u ds nksjku fdruh ckj Hkh ifjofrzr fd;k tk ldrk gsa fdlh Hkh osfj;scy (Variable) dk iz;ksx djrs le; ;g Li"V djuk vko';d gksrk gs fd mlesa fdl izdkj dk MkVk lafpr fd;k tk,xka ;g dk;z osfj;scy uke dks?kksf"kr (Declare) djrs le; dqn fof'k"v 'kcnksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gs] ftudk,d fuf'pr vfkz gksrk gsa bugsa MkVk izdkj (Data Type) dgrs gasa PL/SQL esa vlkbuesav vkwijsvj (:=) dh lgk;rk ls fdlh osfj;scy esa dksbz eku fufnz"v fd;k tk ldrk gsa,slk djrs le; osfj;scy dk uke vkwijsvj ds ck;ha vksj,oa eku (Value) nkfguh vksj fy[kk tkuk pkfg,a PL/SQL dh lgk;rk ds fdlh MkVkcsl Vscy dk dksbz eku vfkok fdlh Dosjh (Query) ls izkir ifj.kkeksa dks Hkh fdlh osfj;scy esa fufnz"v (Assign) fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, PL/SQL esa 'SELECT...INTO' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa dhkh&dhkh dqn,slh ek=kkvksa (Quantities) dh vko';drk gksrh gs] ftuesa lafpr eku lnso flfkj cus jgsaa vfkkzr~ muesa dksbz ifjorzu u gksa blds fy, PL/SQL esa dkwulvuv~l (Constants) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa dqn tfvy izfø;kvksa,oa ifjflfkfr;ksa ds vuqlkj izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u dks fhkuu&fhkuu izdkj ls fu;af=kr djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa rkfdzd vk/kj ij fd, tkus okys bl izdkj ds izksxzke fu;a=k.k ds fy;s dqn lajpukvksa dks fuekz.k fd;k x;k gs] ftugsa izksxzke fu;a=k.k lajpuk (Program Control Structure) dgk tkrk gsa PL/SQL izksxzkfeax dk ifjp; 179

180 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 180 Øfed fu;a=k.k esa izksxzke ds lhkh dfku,d ljy Øe esa fø;kfuor gksrs gsaa izksxzke dk fø;kuo;u dksm ds lcls igys dfku ls izkjehk gksrk gs rfkk lhkh dfkuksa dk,d Øe esa fø;kuo;u gks tkus ij izksxzke lekir gks tkrk gsa dhkh&dhkh fofhkuu 'krk±s ds vk/kj ij,d gh izksxzke dks fhkuu&fhkuu izdkj ls fø;kfuor djuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;g dk;z ^pquko fu;a=k.k* }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa dhkh&dhkh,slh flfkfr;k gksrh gsa] ftuesa izksxzke dfkuksa ds fø;kuo;u dks rc rd nksgjkuk vko';d gksrk gs] tc rd 'krz vlr; (False) u gks tk,a bl mís'; dks iw.kz djus ds fy, izksxzkfeax esa iqujko`frr fu;a=k.k dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa iqujko`frr fu;a=k.k ds fy, iz;qdr gksus okys CykWd dks ^ywi* (Loop) dgrs gsaa fdlh 'krz ds vk/kj ij izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u dk Øe ifjofrzr djus ds fy, PL/SQL esa 'GOTO' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. PL/SQL Hkk"kk] SQL dk folrkfjr :i gsa bl Hkk"kk esa SQL dh fo'ks"krkvksa ds lkfk jhfrxr (Procedural) Hkk"kk dh fo'ks"krkvksa dks la;ksftr fd;k x;k gs] ftlls ;g SQL ls vf/d 'kfdr'kkyh,oa mi;ksxh Hkk"kk cu xbz gsa PL/SQL dh lgk;rk ls mi;ksxdrkz izkslhtj (Procedure), iqad'ku (Function), isdst (Package) br;kfn izdkj dh fhkuu&fhkuu izksxzkfeax bzdkb;ksa dks ikfjhkkf"kr,oa fø;kfuor dj ldrk gsa 2. vu; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa dh gh rjg PL/SQL esa Hkh izksxzke fu;a=k.k fueufyf[kr rhu izdkj dk gksrk gs% (a) Øfed fu;a=k.k (Sequential Control) (b) pquko fu;a=k.k (Selection Control) (c) iqujko`frr fu;a=k.k (Iteration Control) 3. bl fofèk esa lozizfke fdlh 'krz (Condition) dh tk p dh tkrh gsa bldk ifj.kke lr; (TRUE) gksus ij izksxzke dk,d fof'k"v Hkkx fø;kfuor gksrk gsa blh izdkj ifj.kke vlr; (FALSE) gksus ij,d vu; Hkkx fø;kfuor fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh Hkh flfkfr esa bu nks esa ls dksbz,d Hkkx gh fø;kfuor fd;k tkrk gsa vh;kl (Exercise) 1. PL/SQL dh vko';drk D;ksa eglwl dh xbz\ PL/SQL ds ykhk D;k gsaa 2. SQL rfkk PL/SQL ds chp vurj dh Li"V dhft;sa 3. PL/SQL CykWd lajpuk dks le>kb;sa 4. laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;s % (a) PL/SQL o.kzekyk lewg (b) PL/SQL des av (Comment) 5. PL/SQL ds fofhkuu MkVk&izdkjksa (Data-Types) dks le>kb;sa 6. PL/SQL esa osfj;scy ds eku iznku djus dh fof/;ksa dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 7. dkwulvuv ds iz;ksx dks,d PL/SQL izksxzke ds }kjk le>kb;sa 8. PL/SQL esa izksxzke fu;a=k.k lajpuk fdrus izdkj dh gksrh gs\ 9. Øfed fu;a=k.k (Seguential Control) lajpuk ds iz;ksx dk mnkgj.k nhft;sa 10. pquko fu;a=k.k (Selection Control) ds fy;s iz;qdr 'IF...ELSE...END IF' dk fluvsdl fyf[k;sa 11. pquko fu;a=k.k dks n'kkzus ds fy, PL/SQL izksxzke fyf[k;sa 12. fueufyf[kr ds iz;ksx dk fluvsdl fyf[k;s % (a) ljy ywi (b) Ogkby ywi (c) iqkwj ywi 13. ljy ywi rfkk Ogkby ywi esa D;k varj gs\ 14. iqkwj ywi ds iz;ksx dks,d mnkgj.k dh lgk;rk ls Li"V djsaa 15. 'GOTO' dfku ij laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;sa

181 a 12 dlzj (Cursor) dlzj bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % dlzj dk ifjp; dlzj ds izdkj dlzj dh fo'ks"krk, beiyhflv dlzj,dliyhflv dlzj dlzj ds lkfk iqkwj ywi dk iz;ksx 12.1 ifjp; (Introduction) SQL dfkuks s ds fø;kuo;u ds fy, vkwjsdy batu }kjk dqn vkarfjd izfø;k, dh tkrh gs aa bu izfø;kvks a dks iw.kz djus ds fy, eseksjh es a,d dk;z {ks=k dh vko';drk gksrh gsa SQL dfkuks a ds fø;kuo;u ds fy, vkwjsdy batu }kjk iz;ksx fd, tkus okys bl dk;z {ks=k dks ^dlzj* (Cursor) dgrs ga SA ;g dk;z {ks=k SQL dh izfø;kvks a ds fy, vkjf{kr gksrk gsa dlzj esa lafpr MkVk dks fø;k'khy MkVk lewg (Active Date Set) dgk tkrk gsa,fdvo MkVk lsv ls izkir ifj.kke dks j[kus ds fy, eseksjh esa ftrus LFkku (Space) dh vko';drk gks] ls¼kafrd :i ls dlzj dk vkdkj Hkh mruk gksrk gsaa ijarq] oklrfod :i esa dlzj dk vkdkj vkwjsdy batu dh eseksjh O;oLFkkiu {kerkvksa (Memory Management Capabilities) rfkk miyc/ RAM dh ek=kk ds vk/kj ij fu/kzfjr fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy es dlzj dk iz;ksx djus ds fy, eseksjh dk,d Hkkx iwoz ifjhkkf"kr gksrk gsa vr% dlzj dk vkdkj Hkh eseksjh ds bl iwoz ifjhkkf"kr vkdkj rd gh lhfer jgrk gsa 181

182 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy fdlh rkfydk ls izkir ifj.kkeksa dks vkwjsdy batu }kjk eseksjh esa [kksys x, fdlh dlzj esa j[kk tkrk gsa blds i'pkr~ usvodz ds ekè;e ls ;g MkVk DykbaV dei;wvj ij izsf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy batu ls izkir bl MkVk dks j[kus ds fy, DykabV dei;wvj ij Hkh,d dlzj [kksyk tkrk gsa ;fn vkwjsdy batu }kjk izsf"kr MkVk dk vkdkj] DykbaV dei;wvj ds dlzj esa miyc/ vkdkj ls vf/d gks] rks vkwjsdy batu ls izkir MkVk dks DykbUV dei;wvj ij RAM rfkk vkwijsfvax fllve ds fofue;&{ks=k (Swap Area) ds chp LoSi (Swap) fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn fdlh Dosjh (Query) ls izkir ifj.kke esa,d ls vf/d iafdr;k (Rows) gkas] rks,slh flfkfr esa vkwjsdy batu bu iafdr;ksa ds fy,,d iafdr&ikwbavj (Row-Pointer) dk iz;ksx djrk gsa iz;ksxdrkz ifj.kke dh ftl iafdr dks ns[kuk pkgrk gks] dlzj ds fø;k'khy MkVk lewg esa bl ikwbavj dks ml LFkku ij Hkstk tkrk gsa blds vfrfjdr vkwjsdy eas vusd dlzj ofj;scy Hkh gksrs gasa budk iz;ksx dlzj }kjk dh tk jgh izfø;kvksa dh flfkfr Kkr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa 12.2 dlzj ds izdkj (Types of Cursor) dlzj dks ftu ifjflfkfr;ksa esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] mu ifjflfkfr;ksa ds vk/kj ij dlzj nks izdkj ds gksrs gsaa ;s izdkj fueufyf[kr gsa % (a) beiyhflv dlzj (Implicit Cursor) vkwjsdy batu }kjk viuh izfø;kvksa esa iz;ksx fd, tkus okys dlzj dks beiyhflv dlzj (Implicit Cursor) dgk tkrk gsa (b),dliyhflv dlzj (Explicit Cursor) iz;ksxdrkz }kjk viuh vko';drk ds vuqlkj iz;ksx fd, tk jgs dlzj],dliyhflv dlzj (Explicit Cursor) dgykrs gsaa 12.3 dlzj dh fo'ks"krk, (Cursor Attributes) tc vkwjsdy batu }kjk fdlh beiyhflv vfkok,dliyhflv dlzj dk fuekz.k fd;k tkrk gs] rks blds lkfk gh ml dlzj ds fø;kuo;u dks fu;af=kr djus rfkk dlzj dh orzeku flfkfr ls lacaf/r tkudkjh lafpr djus ds fy, dqn osfj;scy Hkh fufezr fd, tkrs gsaa ;s fueufyf[kr gsa % (a) %ISOPEN ;fn dlzj [kqyk (Open) gs] rks ;g osfj;scy True eku iznku djrk gs] vu;fkk False izkir gksrk gsa (b) %FOUND ;fn fjdkmz liqyrkiwozd izkir dj fy;k x;k gks] rks bldk eku True gksrk gs] vu;fkk False gksrk gsa (c) % NOTFOUND ;g %FOUND ds foijhr dk;z djrk gsa vfkkzr~ ;fn fjdkmz izkir u gqvk gks] rks ;g eku True, vu;fkk fjdkmz izkir gksus ij eku False iznku djrk gsa (d) % ROWCOUNT dlzj }kjk ftrus fjdkmz ~l ij izfø;k dh xbz gs] ;g osfj;scy mudh la[;k iznku djrk gsa 12.4 beiyhflv dlzj (Implicitly Cursor) 182 SQL dfkuksa ij dh tkus okyh izfø;kvksa ds fy, vkwjsdy batu }kjk vkarfjd :i ls (Implicitly),d dlzj dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa pw fd] ;g dlzj vkwjsdy batu }kjk vkarfjd :i ls iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] vr% blds fy, eseksjh ds,d {ks=k dks vkjf{kr djuk] bl {ks=k esa mfpr MkVk j[kuk] MkVk ij izfø;k djuk rfkk izfø;k iw.kz gksus ij bl MkVk dks ml vkjf{kr eseksjh {ks=k ls gvkuk br;kfn lhkh dk;ks± dk O;oLFkkiu vkwjsdy batu }kjk gh fd;k tkrk gsa bu izfø;kvksa ds i'pkr~ SQL dfku ds bl ifj.kke dks usvodz ds ekè;e ls DykbaV dei;wvj ij Hkstk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy batu }kjk izsf"kr MkVk dks j[kus ds fy, DykabV dei;wvj ij Hkh,d dlzj dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa DykbaV dei;wvj ds dlzj ij j[kh tkus okyh iafdr;ksa dh la[;k dk O;oLFkkiu DykbaV vkwijsfvax fllve rfkk fofue; {ks=k (Swap Area) }kjk fd;k tkrkk gsa

183 INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE vfkok,dy iafdr okys SELECT (Single Row Select) dfkuksa dh flfkfr (Status) ls lacaf/r tkudkjh izkir djus ds fy, beiyhflv dlzj osjh;scy iz;ksx fd, tk ldrs gsa blds fy, dlzj dk uke (SQL) fy[kdj osfj;scy dk uke fy[kk tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % SQL % FOUND SQL% NOTFOUND SQL% ISOPEN SQL% ROWCOUNT fdlh dlzj osfj;scy eku lnso gh uohure (Most Recent) SQL dfku ls lacaf/r gksrk gsa vfkkzr~ PL/SQL CykWd esa dlzj osfj;scy dk iz;ksx ftl LFkku ij fd;k tk jgk gks] mlls iwoz fø;kfuor dfkuksa esa ls dsoy vafre SQL dfku dh tkudkjh gh buesa gksrh gsa ;fn bl tkudkjh dks vkxs iqu% iz;ksx djuk gks] rks osfj;scy ds eku dks fdlh vu; cwfy;u osfj;scy (Boolean Variable) esa lafpr djuk vfuok;z gksrk gsa beiyhflv dlzj ls lacaf/r osfj;scy ds iz;ksx dks fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>k tk ldrk gs% mnkgj.k % dlzj 12.5,DlIyhflV dlzj (Explicit Cursor) ;fn PL/SQL CykWd esa fdlh rkfydk ds fjdkmz ij dksbz izfø;k dh tkuh gks] rks bl dk;z ds fy,,d dlzj dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bls,dliyhflv dlzj (Explicit Cursor) dgrs gasa bl dlzj dks CykWd ds?kks"k.kkred Hkkx esa?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gs rfkk bldk iz;ksx fø;kuo;u Hkkx esa gksrk gsa PL/SQL dksm CykWd ds?kks"k.kkred Hkkx (Declaration Section) esa dlzj dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa dlzj dks ifjhkkf"kr djus ds fy, bldk,d uke fu/kzfjr fd;k tkrk gsa blds i'pkr~ bls,d Dosjh (Query) ds lkfk tksm+ fn;k tkrk gsa dlzj dh?kks"k.kk gks tkus ij vkwjsdy batu dks bl ckr dh lwpuk izkir gks tkrh gsa vc OPEN, FETCH rfkk CLOSE uked rhu vkns'kksa (Commands) dh lgk;rk ls dlzj ds lkfk dk;z fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh dlzj dks?kksf"kr djus dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gksrk gs % CURSOR <cursorname> IS SELECT<Statement>; 183

184 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mijksdr fluvsdl esa <cursorname>?kksf"kr fd, tk jgs dlzj dk uke gsa <statement> og dfku gs] ftlds fy, dlzj dks?kksf"kr fd;k x;k gsa mnkgj.k% DECLARE CURSOR CUR_SAL IS SELECT NAME, SALARY FROM Employee; BEGIN EXCEPTION END; mijksdr mnkgj.k esa CUR_SAL uked,d dlzj?kksf"kr fd;k x;k gsa bldk iz;ksx 'Employee' uked Vscy ls NAME rfkk SALARY LraHkkas (Columns) ds eku izkir djus ds fy, fd;k tk,xka,dliyhflv dlzj ds iz;ksx dh izfø;k dks fueufyf[kr pj.kksa esa fohkkftr fd;k tk ldrk gs % dlzj dks [kksyuka dlzj ls MkVk izkir djds fdlh eseksjh osfj;scy esa j[kuka osfj;scy esa j[ks x, MkVk ij izfø;k djuka izfø;k iw.kz gks tkus ij dlzj dks cun djuka bu dk;k±s ds fy, OPEN, FETCH rfkk CLOSE vkns'kkas dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (a) dlzj dks [kksyuk (Opening a Cursor) fdlh dlzj dk iz;ksx djus ls iwoz bls [kksyuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;g dk;z 'OPEN' vkns'k (Command) ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa OPEN dfku PL/SQL dksm CykWd ds BEGIN Hkkx esa fy[kk tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % OPEN <cursorname>; ;gk <cursorname> dlzj dh?kks"k.kk djrs le; fu/kzfjr fd;k x;k uke gsa mnkgj.k % 184 DECLARE CURSOR CUR_SAL IS SELECT NAME, SALARY FROM Employee; BEGIN OPEN CUR_ SAL; EXCEPTION END;

185 dlzj dks [kksyus ds fy, OPEN dekam fy[kus ij dlzj ls lacaf/r SQL dfku fø;kfuor gksrk gs rfkk ml dfku esa fy[kh Dosjh dks larq"v djus okys fjdkwmz MkVkcsl ls izkir djds mugsa dlzj esa j[kk tkrk gsa (b) dlzj ls fjdkwmz izkir djuk (Fetching Records from Cursor) dlzj ls izkir MkVk dks lafpr djus ds fy, PL/SQL CykWd esa osfj;scy?kksf"kr fd, tkrs gasa ;s osfj;scy DykabV e'khu ij gksrs gasa dlzj ls fjdkmz izkir djus ds fy, 'FETCH' dekam dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % FETCH<cursorname>INTO<Variablename1>,<Variablename2>,...<Variablename N>; fø;k'khy MkVk lewg (Active Data Set) ds izr;sd LraHk dk eku lafpr djus ds fy,,d&,d osfj;scy?kksf"kr djuk vko';d gksrk gsa bu lhkh dks PL/SQL CykWd ds?kks"k.kkred Hkkx esa?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa dlzj ls fjdkwmz izkir (Fetch) djus ds fy, lkeku;r%,d ywi dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa izr;sd ckj Fetch dfku fø;kfuor gksus ij dlzj ikwbuvj fø;k'khy MkVk lewg dh vxyh iafdr ij pyk tkrk gsa (c) dlzj dks can djuk : (Closing a Cursor) dlzj dk dk;z lekir gks tkus ij bls cun dj fn;k tkrk gsa ;g dk;z CLOSE vkns'k ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % CLOSE <cursorname>; Close vkns'k dk iz;ksx djus ij dlzj can gks tkrk gs rfkk lkfk gh fø;k'khy MkVk lewg Hkh vifjhkkf"kr gks tkrk gsa dlzj cun gks tkus ij dlzj rfkk MkVk lewg nksuksa ds }kjk DykbaV,oa lozj dei;wvj ij iz;ksx dh tk jgh eseksjh Hkh eqdr gks tkrh gsa dlzj ls lacaf/r OPEN, FETCH rfkk CLOSE vkns'kks a ds iz;ksx dks fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>k;k x;k gs% mnkgj.k % dlzj Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- dlzj D;k gksrk gs \ 2-,DlIyhflV dlzj D;k gksrs gsa \ 3- FETCH dek.m dk ç;ksx ge fdlfy, djrs gsa \ 185

186 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 12.6 dlzj ds lkfk iqkwj ywi dk iz;ksx (Using FOR Loop with Cursor) fdlh dlzj ls fjdkmz izkir djus ds fy, iqkwj ywi dk iz;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% FOR<variable_name>IN<cursor_name>; mijksdr fluvsdl esa <variable_name>,d osjh;scy dk uke gsa FOR ds lkfk osfj;scy dk uke fy[kus ij Lor% gh ;g osfj;scy fufezr gks tkrk gs rfkk bldk MkVk Vkbi %rowtype gksrk gsa dlzj ls izkir fjdkwmz dk eku bl osfj;scy esa lafpr gks tkrk gsa iqkwj ywi ds }kjk ;g lqfuf'pr fd;k tkrk gs fd dlzj ls izkir izr;sd fjdkmz osfj;scy esa lafpr gks jgk gsa lhkh fjdkmz bl osfj;scy esa vk tkus ij ywi Lor% gh lekir gks tkrk gs] vfkkzr~ ;gk ywi ls fuxze (EXIT), e'khu }kjk Lo;a gh fd;k tkrk gsa dlzj iqkwj ywi Lor% gh (Automatically) fueufyf[kr dk;z djrk gs % dlzj dks [kksyrk gsa ywi ds izr;sd nksgjko esa dlzj ls,d fjdkmz izkir djrk gsa izfø;k iw.kz gks tkus ij dlzj dks cun djrk gsa gkykwfd ^dlzj iqkwj ywi*] izfø;k iw.kz gks tkus ij Lor% gh lekir gks tkrk gsa ijurq izfø;k iw.kz gksus ds iwoz gh ywi ls ckgj fudyuk gks] rks blds fy, 'exit' vfkok 'goto' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blh izdkj ywi esa dksbz viokn mriuu gksus ij Hkh ywi] izfø;k iw.kz gksus ds igys gh lekir gks tkrk gsa dlzj iqkwj ywi dks fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % 186

187 lkjka'k (Summary) dlzj SQL dfkuksas ds fø;kuo;u ds fy, vkwjsdy batu }kjk dqn vkarfjd izfø;k, dh tkrh gsaa bu izfø;kvksa dks iw.kz djus ds fy, eseksjh esa,d dk;z {ks=k dh vko';drk gksrh gsa SQL dfkuksa ds fø;kuo;u ds fy, vkwjsdy batu }kjk iz;ksx fd, tkus okys bl dk;z {ks=k dks ^dlzj* (Cursor) dgrs gasa ;g dk;z {ks=k SQL dh izfø;kvksa ds fy, vkjf{kr gksrk gsa dlzj esa lafpr MkVk dks fø;k'khy MkVk lewg (Active Date Set) dgk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy batu }kjk viuh izfø;kvksa esa iz;ksx fd, tkus okys dlzj dks beiyhflv dlzj (Implicit Cursor) dgk tkrk gsa iz;ksxdrkz }kjk viuh vko';drk ds vuqlkj iz;ksx fd, tk jgs dlzj],dliyhflv dlzj (Explicit Cursor) dgykrs gsaa fdlh dlzj osfj;scy eku lnso gh uohure (Most Recent) SQL dfku ls lacaf/r gksrk gsa vfkkzr~ PL/SQL CykWd esa dlzj osfj;scy dk iz;ksx ftl LFkku ij fd;k tk jgk gks] mlls iwoz fø;kfuor dfkuksa esa ls dsoy vafre SQL dfku dh tkudkjh gh buesa gksrh gsa ;fn bl tkudkjh dks vkxs iqu% iz;ksx djuk gks] rks osfj;scy ds eku dks fdlh vu; cwfy;u osfj;scy (Boolean Variable) esa lafpr djuk vfuok;z gksrk gsa fdlh dlzj dk iz;ksx djus ls iwoz bls [kksyuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;g dk;z 'OPEN' vkns'k (Command) ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa OPEN dfku PL/SQL dksm CykWd ds BEGIN Hkkx esa fy[kk tkrk gsa dlzj ls fjdkmz izkir djus ds fy, 'FETCH' dekam dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa dlzj dk dk;z lekir gks tkus ij bls cun dj fn;k tkrk gsa ;g dk;z CLOSE vkns'k ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa iqkwj ywi ds }kjk ;g lqfuf'pr fd;k tkrk gs fd dlzj ls izkir izr;sd fjdkmz osfj;scy esa lafpr gks jgk gsa lhkh fjdkmz bl osfj;scy esa vk tkus ij ywi Lor% gh lekir gks tkrk gsa Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. SQL dfkuksas ds fø;kuo;u ds fy, vkwjsdy batu }kjk dqn vkarfjd izfø;k, dh tkrh gsaa bu izfø;kvksa dks iw.kz djus ds fy, eseksjh esa,d dk;z {ks=k dh vko';drk gksrh gsa SQL dfkuksa ds fø;kuo;u ds fy, vkwjsdy batu }kjk iz;ksx fd, tkus okys bl dk;z {ks=k dks ^dlzj* (Cursor) dgrs gasa ;g dk;z {ks=k SQL dh izfø;kvksa ds fy, vkjf{kr gksrk gsa dlzj esa lafpr MkVk dks fø;k'khy MkVk lewg (Active Date Set) dgk tkrk gsa 2. ;fn PL/SQL CykWd esa fdlh rkfydk ds fjdkmz ij dksbz izfø;k dh tkuh gks] rks bl dk;z ds fy,,d dlzj dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bls,dliyhflv dlzj (Explicit Cursor) dgrs gasa bl dlzj dks CykWd ds?kks"k.kkred Hkkx esa?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gs rfkk bldk iz;ksx fø;kuo;u Hkkx esa gksrk gsa 3. dlzj ls fjdkmz izkir djus ds fy, 'FETCH' dekam dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % FETCH<cursorname>INTO<Variablename1>,<Variablename2>,...<Variablename N>; 187

188 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy vh;kl (Exercise) 1. dlzj D;k gs\ PL/SQL esa dlzj fdrus izdkj ds gksrs gsaa 2. dlzj dh flfkfr (Status) Kkr djus ds fy;s iz;qdr osfj;scy dk o.kzu dhft;sa 3. beiyhflv dlzj dk folrkj ls o.kzu dhft;sa 4. beiyhflv dlzj ds iz;ksx dks,d mnkgj.k dh lgk;rk ls Li"V dhft;sa 5.,DlIyhflV dlzj dks le>kb;sa 6.,DlIyhflV dlzj ds iz;ksx ds fy;s fdu vkns'kksa (Commands) dh vko';drk gksrh gs\ 7.,DlIyhflV dlzj dks,d mnkgj.k }kjk Li"V dhft;sa 8. dlzj iqkwj ywi dk fluvsdl fyf[k;s rfkk blds iz;ksx dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 188

189 13 PL/SQL es a viokn fu;a=k.k (Exception Handling in PL/SQL) PL/SQL esa viokn fu;a=k.k bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % PL/SQL esa viokn fu;a=k.k iwoz&fufezr viokn fu;a=k.k ukfer viokn fu;a=k.k vafdr viokn fu;a=k.k iz;ksdrk ifjhkkf"kr viokn fu;a=k.k I/O izekf.kdrk ds fy;s O;olk; fu;eksa dh izekf.kdrk ds fy;s jst&,iyhds'ku&,jj izksfltj 13.1 =kqfv fu;a=k.k (Error Handling) ge tkurs gsa fd SQL,oa jhfrxr (Procedural) izksxzkfeax] nksuksa dh fo'ks"krkvksa dks la;ksftr (Combine) djds PL/SQL dk fuekz.k fd;k x;k gsa bldk iz;ksx muur (Advance) MkVkcsl izksxzkfeax ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh izksxzke ds fuekz.k,oa fø;kuo;u dk mn~ns'; MkVk dh 'kq¼rk (Accuracy),oa v[k.mrk (Integrity) dh tk p djuk] fofhkuu ifjflfkfr;ksa ds vuqlkj MkVkcsl ls fof'k"v ifj.kke izkir djuk br;kfn gksrk gsa vr% LokHkkfod :i ls izr;sd izksxzke ls ;g vis{kk dh tkrh gs fd iz;ksx fd, tkus ij izksxzke lqpk: :i ls fø;kfuor gks rfkk okafnr ifj.kke iznku djsaa ijarq] dqn vioknkred ifjflfkfr;ksa (Exceptional Conditions) ds dkj.k izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u (Execution) esa =kqfv;k Hkh mriuu gks ldrh gsa] ftlls fø;kuo;u ckf/r gks tkrk gsa vr% izksxzke ds liqy fø;kuo;u ds fy, bu =kqfv;ksa dks fu;af=kr djuk,oa budk mfpr O;oLFkkiu djuk vko';d gsa ;g dk;z =kqfv&fu;a=k.k (Error Handling) vfkok viokn fu;a=k.k (Exception Handling) }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa 189

190 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy PL/SQL esa viokn fu;a=k.k (Exception Handling in PL/SQL) ge i<+ pqds gs a fd PL/SQL dk,d laiw.kz CykWd fø;kuo;u ds fy, vkwjsdy batu ds ikl Hkstk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy batu ml CykWd ds izr;sd dfku dk fø;kuo;u djrk gsa bu dfkuksa ds fø;kuo;u ds nksjku dksbz =kqfv mriuu gksus dh lahkkouk Hkh jgrh gsa =kqfv mriuu gksus ij fø;kuo;u vliqy (Fail) gks tkrk gsa,slh flfkfr;ksa dks vkwjsdy batu }kjk viokn flfkfr;k (Exception conditions) ekuk tkrk gsa dksbz viokn flfkfr mriuu gksus ij vkwjsdy batu blds fu;a=k.k,oa O;oLFkkiu dk iz;kl djrk gsa bl izfø;k dks viokn fu;a=k.k (Exception Handling) dgrs gsaa viokn fu;a=k.k ds fy, iz;ksx fd, tkus okys dksm&cykwd (Code Block) dks viokn fu;a=kd (Exception Handler) dgk tkrk gsa fdlh PL/SQL izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u ds nksjku mriuu gksus okyh =kqfv;ksa,oa viokn flfkfr;ksa ds O;oLFkkiu dk dk;z PL/SQL CykWd ds Exception Hkkx }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn izksxzke fø;kuo;u ds nksjku PL/SQL CykWd ds fdlh Hkh Hkkx esa dksbz viokn (Exception) mriuu gksrk gs] rks PL/ SQL }kjk izksxzke dk fu;a=k.k (Program Control) Exception Hkkx ij Hkst fn;k tkrk gsa izksxzke fø;kuo;u esa ftu =kqfv;ksa ds mriuu gksus dh lahkkouk gksrh gs] muds fu;a=k.k laca/h dksm Exception Hkkx esa fy[ks tkrs gsa Exception Hkkx esa fy[ks x, dksm ds CykWd dks viokn fu;a=kd (Exception Handler) dgk tkrk gsa vkwjsdy esa fu;a=kd viokn nks izdkj ds gksrs gs% 1. iwoz&fufezr viokn fu;a=kd (Built-in Exception Handlers) 2. iz;ksdrk ifjhkkf"kr viokn fu;a=kd (User-Defined Execption Handlers) bl vè;k; esa bu nksuksa dks mnkgj.k lfgr folrkj ls le>k;k x;k gs% 1. iwoz fufezr viokn fu;a=kd (Build-in Exception Handlers) vkwjsdy viuh eseksjh esa mriuu gksus okyh izr;sd =kqfv vfkok viokn flfkfr dks igpkuus esa l{ke gksrk gsa vdlj mriuu gksus okyh lkeku; viokn flfkfr;ksa dks fu;af=kr djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa dqn viokn fu;a=kdksa dks ifjhkkf"kr dj fn;k x;k gsa bugsa ^iwoz&fufezr viokn (Build-in Exceptions)* dgk tkrk gsa buesa ls izr;sd fu;a=kd fdlh fof'k"v viokn flfkfr ds fu;a=k.k ds fy, ikfjhkkf"kr gsa izksxzke esa ftu viokn flfkfr;ksa ds mriuu gksus dh lahkkouk gks] muls lacafèkr fu;a=kdksa dks PL/SQL CykWd ds viokn fu;a=k.k (Exception Handling) Hkkx esa lfeefyr fd;k tkrk gs] ;s iwoz fufezr viokn fu;a=kd nks izdkj ds gksrs gsa % (a) ukfer viokn fu;a=kd (Named Exception Handlers) (b) vafdr viokn fu;a=kd (Numbered Exception Handlers) bu nksuksa dks vkxs of.kzr fd;k x;k gs % (a) ukfer viokn fu;a=kd : (Named Exception Handlers) PL/SQL izksxzkfeax esa ftu viokn flfkfr;ksa ds mriuu gksus dh vf/d lahkkouk gksrh gs] mugsa fu;af=kr djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa viokn fu;a=kdksa ds,d lewg (Set) dk fuekz.k fd;k x;k gsa bl lewg ds izr;sd fu;a=kd dks,d fof'k"v uke ds }kjk igpkuk,oa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vr% bugas ^ukfer viokn fu;a=kd (Named Exception Handlers)* dgrs gsaa vkwjsdy esa budh la[;k yxhkx chl gsa dqn egroiw.kz ukfer viokn fu;a=kd (Named Exception Handlers) fueufyf[kr gas% 1. CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN : igys ls Open dlzj dks iqu% Open djus ij ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa

191 2. DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX : ;fn ;wfud bamsdl (Unique Index) okys fdlh LraHk (Column) esa 'INSERT' vfkok 'UPDATE' dfku ds }kjk nksgjs eku (Duplicate Values) okyh nks ifdr;k fufezr gks jgh gksa] rks ml flfkfr esa ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa 3. INVALID_CURSOR : PL/SQL esa viokn fu;a=k.k fdlh can (Closed) ;k vifjhkkf"kr (Undifined) dlzj ij dksbz lafø;k (Operation) djus ij ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa 4. INVALID_NUMBER : ;g fu;a=kd izksxzke esa 'CHAR' flvªax ls 'NUMBER' MkVk Vkbi esa ifjorzu ds nksjku vkus okyh =kqfv;ksa dks fu;af=kr djrk gsa 5. LOGIN_DENIED : vkwjsdy esa izos'k (Log-in) djrs le; dksbz vuqi;qdr User-Name vfkok Password nsus ij ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa 6. NO_DATA_FOUND : ;fn fdlh Select dfku ds }kjk dksbz iafdr (Row) iznku ugha dh tkrh (vfkkzr~ Select dfku 'kwu; (Zero) iafdr;k iznku djrk gsa)] rc ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa 7. NOT_LOGGED_ON : ;fn vkwjsdy esa Log-In fd, fcuk gh dksbz ;wtj MkVkcsl ls lacaf/r dksbz vkns'k (Command) ns] rks ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa 8. PROGRAM_ERROR : PL/SQL izksxzke esa dksbz vkarfjd =kqfv (Inertnal Error) vfkok lel;k (Problem) mriuu gksus ij ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa 9. ROWTYPE_MISMATCH : dlzj dk iz;ksx djus ij tc fdlh osfj;scy (Variable) rfkk eku (Value) dk vkil esa feyku ugha gksrk] (vfkkzr~ osfj;scy rfkk eku Match ugha gksrs)] rc ;g fu;a=kd mriuu gksrk gsa 10. STORAGE_ERROR : izksxzke fø;kuo;u ds nksjku eseksjh laxzg.k (Storage) ls lacaf/r dksbz lel;k vkus ij ;g fu;a=kd mriuu gksrk gsa 11. TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE : ;fn fdlh lalk/u (Resource) dh izrh{kk esa iz;ksdrk }kjk ifjhkkf"kr vof/ ls vf/ d le; yxrk gs] rc ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa 12. TOO_MANY_ROWS : ;fn 'Select' dfku,d ls vf/d iafdr;k (Row) iznku djrk gs] (è;ku jgs] PL/ SQL esa ;g eku; ugha gs)] rc ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa 13. VALUE_ERROR : ;fn fdlh eku (Value) ds fy, xyr MkVk&Vkbi vfkok vkdkj (Size) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] rks ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa 14. ZERO_DIVIDE : fdlh O;atd (Expression) esa la[;k dks 'kwu; ls Hkkx nsus ij ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa 191

192 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 15. OTHERS : ukfer fu;a=kdkas ds laca/ esa mijksdr of.kzr ifjflfkfr;ksa ds vfrfjdr mriuu gksus okyh vu; lhkh viokn flfkfr;ksa esa ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa PL/SQL CykWd ds fø;kuo;u ds nksjku dksbz =kqfviw.kz ifjflfkfr mriuu gksus ij izksxzke dk fu;a=k.k PL/SQL CykWd ds viokn fu;a=k.k Hkkx (Exception Section) ij Hkst fn;k tkrk gs rfkk izksxzke esa mriuu =kqfv ls lacafèkr viokn ds fy, ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k Hkkx fø;kfuor gksrk gsa PL/SQL esa viokn ls lacaf/r Ñfr (action) dks ifjhkkfa"kr djus ds fy, 'WHEN' 'kcn dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh ukfer fu;a=kd dks iz;ksx djus dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% EXCEPTION WHEN <Exception_Name>THEN <action> mijksdr fluvsdl esa WHEN ds lkfk fdlh ukfer viokn fu;a=kd dk uke fy[kk tkrk gsa <action> ds }kjk ;g ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gs fd viokn dh flfkfr mriuu gksus ij D;k dk;z djuk gsa bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % 192 mijksdr mnkgj.k esa 'Phone' uked,d osfj;scy ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gs] ftldk MkVk&Vkbi 'Integer' gsa bl osfj;scy esa 'SELECT...INTO' dfku dh lgk;rk ls 'STUDENTS' uked rkfydk ls 'NAME' dkwye dk og eku j[kus dk iz;kl fd;k tk jgk gs] ftlds fy, rkfydk ds 'ROLL_NO' LraHk dk eku '111' gksa ;gk 'NAME' LraHk dk MkVk&Vkbi rfkk 'PHONE' uked osfj;scy dk MkVk&Vkbi nksuksa fhkuu gsaa vr% 'VALUE_ERROR' uked viokn mriuu gksxka bls fu;af=kr djus ds fy, PL/SQL CykWd ds EXCEPTION Hkkx esa WHEN ds lkfk VALUE_ERROR uked viokn fu;a=kd dk uke fy[kk x;k gsa ;g viokn mriuu gksus ij Dbms_Output_Put_Line esa fy[kk x;k lans'k iznf'kzr gksxka (b) vafdr viokn fu;a=kd (Numbered Exception Handlers) vkwjsdy esa fofhkuu izdkj dh viokn flfkfr;ksa dks fu;af=kr djus ds fy, ukfer viokn fu;a=kdkas ds vfrfjdr vu; iwoz fufezr viokn fu;a=kd Hkh miyc/ gksrs gasa bu lhkh fu;a=kdksa dks pkj vadks okyh fof'k"v la[;k ds }kjk igpkuk tkrk gsa vr% bugsa vkwjsdy ds ^vafdr viokn fu;a=kd (Numbered Exception Handlers)* dgrs gsaa vkwjsdy esa bu vafdr viokn fu;a=kdksa dh la[;k chl gtkj ls Hkh vf/d gsa buesa ls dqn viokn fu;a=kd fueufyf[kr gsa %

193 1. ORA-0923 : 'FROM' Keyword not found where expected. 2. ORA-0942 : Table or view does not exit. 3. ORA-0903 : Invalid Table Name 4. ORA-0950 : Invalid Drop Option 5. ORA-0933 : SQL Command not Properly ended. 6. ORA-1017 : Invalid Username/Password; login denied. PL/SQL esa viokn fu;a=k.k vkwjsdy ds vafdr viokn fu;a=kd],sls fu;a=kd gas] ftugsa fdlh viokn flfkfr ds Kkr gksus ij vkwjsdy batu Lo;a gh mfpr :i ls iz;ksx djrk gsa ge tkurs gas fd ukfer viokn fu;a=kdksa dks ifjhkkf"kr djus ds fy, PL/SQL dksm CykWd ds 'EXCEPTION' Hkkx esa 'WHEN' 'kcn dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ijarq 'WHEN' ds lkfk dsoy flvªax (String) izdkj ds eku gh fn, tk ldrs gsaa vr% vafdr viokn fu;a=kdksa ds fy, bldk iz;ksx djuk lahko ugha gsa vkwjsdy esa ukfer,oa vafdr] nksuksa gh izdkj ds viokn fu;a=kdksa ds lkfk,d dksm ifjhkkf"kr gksrk gs] ftlds }kjk viokn flfkfr dks lqy>kus dk iz;kl fd;k tkrk gsa iz;ksdrk (User) PL/SQL CykWd dk dksm fy[krs le; viuh vko';drk ds vuqlkj fdlh viokn dks lqy>kus ds fy, Lo;a dksbz vu; funsz'k Hkh ifjhkkf"kr dj ldrk gsa,slh flfkfr esa dksbz viokn mriuu gksus ij iz;ksxdrkz }kjk ifjhkkf"kr dksm dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vu;fkk] viokn fu;a=kd ls lac¼ fmiqkwyv (Default) dksm dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 2. iz;ksdrk ifjhkkf"kr viokn fu;a=kd (User-Defined Execption Handlers) iwoz fufezr vioknksa ds vfrfjdr vafdr viokn fu;a=kdkas dh lgk;rk ls iz;ksdrk viuh vko';drkvksa ds vuqlkj Lo;a ds viokn fu;a=kd Hkh ifjhkkf"kr dj ldrk gsa bugsa ^iz;ksdrk ifjhkkf"kr viokn fu;a=kd (User Defined Exception Handlers)' dgk tkrk gsa bu fu;a=kdksa dk iz;ksx fueufyf[kr nks izdkj ds dk;k±s esa fd;k tk ldrk gs% (a) buiqv@vkmviqv (I/O) dh tk p (b) O;olk; fu;eksa ds ikyu dh tk p bu nksuksa izdkj ds dk;k±s esa iz;qdr fu;a=kdksa dks uhps le>k;k x;k gs % (a) buiqv@vkmviqv (I/O) dh tk p μ vkwjsdy esa vafdr viokn fu;a=kdkas ds iz;ksx dks ljy cukus ds fy, iz;ksxdrkz buds lkfk dksbz uke Hkh lac¼ dj ldrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, Pragma Exception_init() dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh vafdr viokn fu;a=kd dks,d uke (vfkkzr~ flvaªx) ds lkfk tksm+us dk dk;z PL/SQL CykWd ds 'DECLARE' Hkkx esa fd;k tkrk gsa PL/SQL ds 'DECLARE' Hkkx esa?kksf"kr vkwctsdv (Object) dk fuekz.k rc rd ugha fd;k tkrk] tc rd fd PL/SQL CykWd esa ml vkwctsdv dh vko';drk u gksa ijarq fdlh vafdr viokn fu;a=kd dks,d uke ds lkfk lac¼ djus dk dk;z mlh le; djuk vfuok;z gksrk gs] tc mls?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gs] u fd ml le;] tc viokn flfkfr mriuu gksus ij mls tkx`r (Invoke) fd;k tkrk gsa PRAGMA 'kcn dk iz;ksx izh&deikbyj (Pre- Compiler) dks cqykus (Calling) ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa ;g izh&deikbyj fdlh vafdr viokn fu;a=kd dks,d uke ds lkfk tksm+rk gsa PRAGMA ds lkfk iz;qdr gksus okys Exception_Init() iqad'ku esa nks isjkehvj (Parameters) gksrs gsaa buesa ls igyk isjkehvj iz;ksxdrkz }kjk ifjhkkf"kr uke rfkk nwljk isjkehvj vkwjsdy batu dh viokn la[;k gksrk gsa PRAGMA Exception_Init dks ifjhkkf"kr djus dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % DECLARE <User_Defined_Exceptions_Name> EXCEPTION; 193

194 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(<user_defined_Exception_Name>, <ERROR Number>); BEGIN <Statements> EXCETPION WHEN<user_defined_Exception_Name> THEN <user_defined_action> END; mnkgj.k % mijksdr fluvsdl esa <user_defined_exception_name> fdlh vafdr viokn fu;a=kd ds fy, iz;ksxdrkz }kjk ifjhkkf"kr dksbz uke gsa ;g uke rfkk blls lac¼ viokn Øekad nksuksa dks isjkehvj ds :i esa PRAGMA Exception_Init() iqad'ku esa Hkstk tkrk gsa DECLERE Hkkx esa?kksf"kr viokn dh flfkfr mriuu gksus ij bls lqy>kus ds fy, vko';d dksm dks PL/SQL CykWd ds Exception Hkkx esa ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa pwwfd] PRAGMA Exception_init() ds }kjk vafdr viokn fu;a=kdksa dks flvªax izdkj ds,d uke ds lkfk tksm+k tkrk gs] vr% bl uke ds }kjk bu vafdr viokn fu;a=kdksa ds dk;z dks ifjhkkf"kr djus ds fy, EXCEPTION Hkkx esa 'WHEN' dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs% 194 mijksdr mnkgj.k esa PL/SQL CykWd ds DECLARE Hkkx esa DATA_BUSY uked,d viokn?kksf"kr fd;k x;k gsa PRAGMA Exception_init()iQaD'ku ds }kjk bl viokn uke dks viokn la[;k ds lkfk tksm+k tk jgk gsa vr% vc PL/SQL CykWd ds EXCEPTION Hkkx esa vafdr viokn fu;a=kd ls lacafèkr dksm ifjhkkf"kr djus ds fy, blls lacaf/r uke (DATA_BUSY) dks WHEN ds lkfk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa

195 (b) O;olk; fu;eksa ds ikyu dh tk p μ fdlh Hkh O;kikfjd vfkok O;kolkf;d dk;z esa MkVk dks ifjofrzr djrs le; ml O;olk; ls lacaf/r fu;eksa ds ikyu dks lqfuf'pr fd;k tkuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;fn fdlh fjdkwmz (Record) dk dksbz MkVk O;olk; ls lacaf/r fdlh fu;e dk myya?ku dj jgk gks] rks,slh flfkfr esa ml laiw.kz fjdkwmz dks fujlr (Reject) djuk vfuok;z gsa pw fd] bl izdkj dh flfkfr;ksa esa lel;k fdlh fof'k"v O;olk; ds fu;eksa ls lacaf/r gs] vkwjsdy ds fdlh fu;e ls lacaf/r ugha gsa vr% vkwjsdy blds fy, dksbz Hkh =kqfv&lans'k iznf'kzr djus vfkok viokn fu;a=kd dk iz;ksx djus esa vlefkz gksrk gsa bl lel;k dks lqy>kus rfkk O;olk; ls lacaf/r fu;eksa ds iz;ksx dks lqfuf'pr djus ds fy, iz;ksxdrkz }kjk ifjhkkf"kr viokn fu;a=kdksa dks mhkkjus rfkk blds i'pkr~ mugsa fu;af=kr djus (Raising & Handling) dh in~/fr dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa pwwfd] ;s O;olkf;d fu;e vkwjsdy batu dh n`f"v ls fujfkzd gas] vr% bu fu;eksa dk è;ku j[kuk rfkk muds ikyu dks lqfuf'pr djus ds fy, mfpr dksm fy[kuk izksxzkej dh {kerk rfkk dq'kyrk ij fuhkzj gksrk gsa O;olk; fu;eksa dh izkekf.kdrk (Business Rules Validation) ls lacaf/r dksm dks Hkh PL/ SQL CYkkWd ds?kks"k.kkred Hkkx esa?kksf"kr djuk vko';d gksrk gsa bu fu;eksa ls lacaf/ r =kqfviw.kz flfkfr;ksa (Erroneous Conditions) dks tk pus ds fy;s fø;kuo;u Hkkx esa dksm fy[kk tkrk gsa ;fn,slh dksbz =kqfviw.kz flfkfr mriuu gks jgh gs] rks mls lqy>kus ds fy, vko';d viokn dks cqykus (Calling) ds fy, RAISE dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa RAISE }kjk cqyk, x, viokn dks fu;af=kr djus dk dk;z PL/SQL CykWd ds viokn fu;a=k.k Hkkx esa fd;k tkrk gsa O;olk; fu;eksa dh izkekf.kdrk dks tk pus ds fy, iz;ksxdrkz }kjk ifjhkkf"kr viokn fu;a=kdksa dks fy[kus dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% DECLARE <user_defined_exception_name>exception; BEGIN <SQL Statements>; IF <Condition> THEN RAISE <user_defined_exception_name>; END IF; EXCEPTION WHEN<user_defined_Exception_Name> THEN <user_defined_action> END; mijksdr fluvsdl ds vuqlkj PL/SQL CykWd ds DECLARE Hkkx esa iz;ksxdrkz <user_defined_exception_name> uked,d viokn dks?kksf"kr djrk gsa O;olk; fu;eksa dh 'krk±s dh tk p BEGIN Hkkx esa IF dfku ds }kjk dh tkrh gsa ;fn fdlh 'krz dk myya?ku fd;k tk jgk gks] rks RAISE ds }kjk viokn fu;a=kd dks cqyk;k tkrk gsa vc izksxzke dk fu;a=k.k EXCEPTION Hkkx esa LFkkukarfjr gks tkrk gs] tgk WHEN ds lkfk iz;ksxdrkz }kjk?kksf"kr viokn dk uke,oa mlds fu;a=k.k ls lacafèkr funsz'k ifjhkkf"kr fd, x, gsaa bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>k;k x;k gs % PL/SQL esa viokn fu;a=k.k Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- vkwjsdy dsa fu;a=kd viokn fdrus çdkj ds gksrs gsa \ 2- Time Out - On - Resource dc mriuu gksrk gs \ 3- js at,iyhds'ku,jj D;k gksrk gs \ 195

196 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % 196 mijksdr PL/SQL dksm CykWd ds }kjk SAVINGS_ACCOUNT uked rkfydk ds fdlh [kkrs (Account) ls /u vkgfjr (Withdraw) djus ls iwoz bl O;kolkf;d fu;e (Business Rule) dh tk p dh tk jgh gs fd vkgfjr dh tk jgh jkf'k lacaf/r [kkrs esa miyc/ jkf'k ls de gksuh pkfg,a ;fn [kkrs esa miyc/ jkf'k ls vfèkd /u ds vkgj.k dk iz;kl fd;k tk jgk gks] rks,slh flfkfr esa LESS_BALANCE uked viokn dks cqyk;k tk jgk gsa ;fn vkgj.k&jkf'k miyc/&jkf'k ls de gs] vfkkzr~ O;kolkf;d fu;e dk myya?ku ugha gks jgk gsa rks,slh flfkfr esa rkfydk ds MkVk dks ifjofrzr dj fn;k tkrk gsa vu;fkk] O;olk; fu;e ds myya?ku dh flfkfr esa LESS_BALANCE uked viokn ds }kjk ;g lans'k iznf'kzr fd;k tkrk gs fd vkgj.k ds fy, lacaf/r [kkrs esa i;kzir /u jkf'k miyc/ ugha gsa 13.3 jst,iyhds'ku&,jj&izkslhtj (The Raise Application-error Procedure) mijksdr viokn fu;a=kdks a ds vfrfjdr vkwjsdy es a viokn fu;a=k.k ds fy,,d vksj fodyi Hkh miyc/ gsa bldk uke ^jst&,iyhds'ku&,jj* (Raise-Application-Error) gsa ;g,d izkslhtj gs] tks iz;ksxdrkz dks vafdr viokn fu;a=kdks a ds fy, dksbz =kqfv lans'k fu/kzfjr djus,oa viokn mriuu gksus ij ;g lans'k iznf'kzr djus dh lqfo/k iznku djrk gsa jst,iyhds'ku,jj dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% Raise_Application_Error(<Error_No>, <Error_Msg>);

197 jst&,iyhds'ku&,jj izkslhtj ds fy, nks isjkehvj vko';d gksrs gasa buesa ls igyk,d vafdr viokn fu;a=kd rfkk nwljk isjkehvj ml viokn ds fy, iz;ksdrk (User) }kjk ifjhkkf"kr =kqfv lans'k gksrk gsa mijksdr fluvsdl esa & <Error_No.> : og vafdr viokn fu;a=kd gs] ftlds mriuu gksus ij =kqfv lans'k (Error Massage) iznf'kzr djuk gsa <Error_Msg> : <Error_No>esa fy[kk x;k viokn mriuu gksus ij tks,jj eslst iznf'kzr djuk gks] og bl isjkehvj ds }kjk crk;k tkrk gsa jst,iyhds'ku,jj esa <Error_No> dk eku ls ds chp gks ldrk gsa bldk iz;ksx izkslhtj] iqad'ku] fvªxj br;kfn fdlh esa Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa bu lhkh dh ppkz vxys vè;k;ksa esa dh xbz gsa fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k jst&,iyhds'ku&,jj ds iz;ksx dks Li"V djrk gsa mnkgj.k % PL/SQL esa viokn fu;a=k.k lkjka'k (Summary) dqn vioknkred ifjflfkfr;ksa (Exceptional Conditions) ds dkj.k izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u (Execution) esa =kqfv;k Hkh mriuu gks ldrh gsa] ftlls fø;kuo;u ckf/r gks tkrk gsa vr% izksxzke ds liqy fø;kuo;u ds fy, bu =kqfv;ksa dks fu;af=kr djuk,oa budk mfpr O;oLFkkiu djuk vko';d gsa ;g dk;z =kqfv&fu;a=k.k (Error Handling) vfkok viokn fu;a=k.k (Exception Handling) }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa viokn fu;a=k.k ds fy, iz;ksx fd, tkus okys dksm&cykwd dks viokn fu;a=kd dgk tkrk gsa vdlj mriuu gksus okyh lkeku; viokn flfkfr;ksa dks fu;af=kr djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa dqn viokn fu;a=kdksa dks ifjhkkf"kr dj fn;k x;k gsa bugsa ^iwoz&fufezr viokn (Build-in Exceptions)* dgk tkrk gsa 197

198 a vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 198 PL/SQL izksxzkfeax esa ftu viokn flfkfr;ksa ds mriuu gksus dh vf/d lahkkouk gksrh gs] mugsa fu;af=kr djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa viokn fu;a=kdksa ds,d lewg (Set) dk fuekz.k fd;k x;k gsa bl lewg ds izr;sd fu;a=kd dks,d fof'k"v uke ds }kjk igpkuk,oa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vr% bugas ^ukfer viokn fu;a=kd (Named Exception Handlers)* dgrs gsaa vkwjsdy esa budh la[;k yxhkx chl gsa ukfer viokn fu;a=kdkas ds vfrfjdr vu; iwoz fufezr viokn fu;a=kd Hkh miyc/ gksrs gasa bu lhkh fu;a=kdksa dks pkj vadks okyh fof'k"v la[;k ds }kjk igpkuk tkrk gsa vr% bugsa vkwjsdy ds ^vafdr viokn fu;a=kd* dgrs gsaa vkwjsdy esa bu vafdr viokn fu;a=kdksa dh la[;k chl gtkj ls Hkh vf/d gsa iwoz fufezr vioknksa ds vfrfjdr vafdr viokn fu;a=kdkas dh lgk;rk ls iz;ksdrk viuh vko';drkvksa ds vuqlkj Lo;a ds viokn fu;a=kd Hkh ifjhkkf"kr dj ldrk gsa bugsa ^iz;ksdrk ifjhkkf"kr viokn fu;a=kd (User Defined Exception Handlers)' dgk tkrk gsa vafdr viokn fu;a=kdkas ds iz;ksx dks ljy cukus ds fy, iz;ksxdrkz buds lkfk dksbz uke Hkh lac¼ dj ldrk gsa bl dk;z ds fy, Pragma Exception_init() dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa O;olk; fu;eks a dh izkekf.kdrk (Business Rules Validation) ls lacaf/r =kqfviw.kz flfkfr;ks (Erroneous Conditions) dks tk pus ds fy;s fø;kuo;u Hkkx es a dksm fy[kk tkrk gsa ;fn,slh dksbz =kqfviw.kz flfkfr mriuu gks jgh gs] rks mls lqy>kus ds fy, vko';d viokn dks cqykus (Calling) ds fy, RAISE dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa RAISE }kjk cqyk, x, viokn dks fu;af=kr djus dk dk;z PL/SQL CykWd ds viokn fu;a=k.k Hkkx es a fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy es a viokn fu;a=k.k ds fy,,d vksj fodyi Hkh miyc/ gsa bldk uke ^jst&,iyhds'ku&,jj* (Raise-Application-Error) gsa ;g,d izkslhtj gs] tks iz;ksxdrkz dks vafdr viokn fu;a=kdks a ds fy, dksbz =kqfv lans'k fu/kzfjr djus,oa viokn mriuu gksus ij ;g lans'k iznf'kzr djus dh lqfo/k iznku djrk gsa Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. vkwjsdy esa fu;a=kd viokn nks izdkj ds gksrs gs% iwoz&fufezr viokn fu;a=kd (Built-in Exception Handlers) iz;ksdrk ifjhkkf"kr viokn fu;a=kd (User-Defined Execption Handlers) 2. TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE : ;fn fdlh lalk/u (Resource) dh izrh{kk esa iz;ksdrk }kjk ifjhkkf"kr vof/ ls vf/d le; yxrk gs] rc ;g viokn mriuu gksrk gsa 3. vkwjsdy esa viokn fu;a=k.k ds fy,,d vksj fodyi Hkh miyc/ gsa bldk uke ^jst&,iyhds'ku&,jj* (Raise-Application-Error) gsa ;g,d izkslhtj gs] tks iz;ksxdrkz dks vafdr viokn fu;a=kdksa ds fy, dksbz =kqfv lans'k fu/kzfjr djus,oa viokn mriuu gksus ij ;g lans'k iznf'kzr djus dh lqfo/k iznku djrk gsa vh;kl (Exercise) 1. viokn fu;a=k.k D;k gs\ vkwjsdy esa viokn fu;a=k.k dh vko';drk D;ksa gksrh gs\ 2. vkwjsdy esa viokn fu;a=kd fdrus izdkj ds gksrs gsa\ 3. iwoz&fufezr viokn fu;a=kdksa dks folrkj ls o.kzu dhft;sa 4. laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;s μ (a) ukfer viokn fu;a=kd (b) vafdr viokn fu;a=kd 5. ukfer viokn fu;a=kdksa ds iz;ksx dks mfpr mnkgj.k ds }kjk Li"V dhft;sa 6. PRAGMYA Exception_Init() dk iz;ksx D;kas fd;k tkrk gs\ blds fluvsdl dks le>kb;sa 7. PRAGMA Exception_Init() ds iz;ksx dks mfpr mnkgj.k }kjk Li"V dhft;sa 8. O;olk; fu;eksa dh tk p ds fy, iz;ksdrk ifjhkkf"kr viokn fu;a=kdksa dks iz;ksx fdl izdkj fd;k tkrk gs\ mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 9. jst&,iyhds'ku&,jj izkslhtj dk fluvsdl fyf[k;sa blds iz;ksx dks,d mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>kb;sa

199 14 vkwjsdy VªkUtsD'ku (Oracle Transaction) vkwjsdy VªkUtsD'ku bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % vkwjsdy VªkUtsD'ku dfev dfku jksycsd dfku lsoikwbav dfku ykwd dh vo/kj.kk ykwd ds izdkj ykwd ds Lrj 'SELECT...FOR UPDATE' dfku ykwd dks gvkuk 14.1 vkwjsdy VªkUtsD'ku (Oracle Transaction) fdlh Vscy ds MkVk ij fd;s tk jgs ifjorzuksa ds fy;s iz;qdr SQL dfkuksa dh Ük` [kyk dks vkwjsdy esa ^VªkUtsD'ku* (Transaction) dgk tkrk gsa Vscy ds MkVk esa ifjorzu dh izfø;k ls lacaf/r ;s SQL dfku,d&nwljs ls rkfdzd :i ls tqm+s gq, gksrs gsaa vr% fdlh VªkUtsD'ku ls lacaf/r lhkh dfkuksa dks vkwjsdy,d gh bdkbz (Unit) ekurk gsa VªkUtsD'ku dk iz;ksx lkeku;r% MkVk ds ysu&nsu] MkVk esa ifjorzu rfkk blh izdkj ds vu; egroiw.kz dk;ks± ds leiknu esa fd;k tkrk gsa MkVkcsl esa lafpr MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Integrity) dks cuk, j[kuk vr;ar vko';d gsa vr% fdlh VªkUtsD'ku ds }kjk Vscy ds MkVk esa dksbz Hkh ifjorzu fd;s tkus ij ;k rks lhkh ifjorzu liqy gks tkus pkfg,] vu;fkk leiw.kz VªkUtsD'ku fujlr dj fn;k tkuk pkfg,a bl vko';drk dks iw.kz djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa Vscy ds MkVk esa ifjorzu dk dk;z nks pj.kksa esa fd;k tkrk gsa izfke pj.k esa Vscy ds MkVk esa okafnr ifjorzu fd;s tkrs gsaa ijurq] vhkh bugsa eseksjh esa lafpr ugha fd;k tkrk] rkfd] ;fn fdlh dkj.ko'k VªkUtsD'ku dks fujlr djuk gks] rks,slk dj ikuk lehko gks ldsa fdlh VªkUtsD'ku ds }kjk Vscy ds MkVk esa fd;s x, ifjorzuksa dks fujlr djus 199

200 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy rfkk MkVk dks iqu% VªkUtsD'ku iwoz flfkfr ij ys tkus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'ROLLBACK' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blds foijhr ;fn VªkUtsD'ku }kjk fd;s x;s ifjorzuksa dks LFkk;h :i ls lafpr djuk gks] rks blds fy, 'COMMIT' dfku fy[kk tkrk gsa,d ckj 'COMMIT' fy[k nsus ij VªkUtsD'ku }kjk Vscy MkVk esa fd;s x, lelr ifjorzu LFkk;h :i ls eseksjh esa lafpr gks tkrs gsaa ;g è;ku j[kuk vko';d gs fd,d ckj 'COMMIT' ds }kjk lafpr dj fn;s x, ifjorzu dks 'ROLLBACK' ds }kjk fujlr ugha fd;k tk ldrka vr% ;fn fdlh VªkUtsD'ku izfø;k ds }kjk fd;s tk jgs ifjorzuksa ls lacaf/r dfkukas dh J `[kyk cgqr cmh gs] rks bl le; leiw.kz VªkUtsD'ku dh ctk; fdlh,d Hkkx dks gh lafpr vfkok fujlr djus dh Hkh vko';drk gks ldrh gsa ;g dk;z 'SAVEPOINT' dfku dh lgk;rk ls fd;k tkrk gsa vè;k; ds bl Hkkx esa ge dfev] jksycsd rfkk lso&ikwbav rhuksa dfkuksa dh tkudkjh izkir djsaxs rfkk mnkgj.kksa dh lgk;rk ysdj budk iz;ksx Hkh lh[ksaxsa (A)^dfeV* dfku ('COMMIT' Statement) vkwjsdy esa VªkUtsD'ku dks izkjehk djus ds fy, dksbz fof'k"v dfku ugha gksrka Vscy ds MkVk es fd;s tk jgs ifjorzuksa ls lacaf/r igyk dfku fy[krs gh VªkUtsD'ku izkjehk gks tkrk gsa lelr ifjorzu dj fn;s tkus ij bu ifjorzuksa dks eseksjh esa LFkk;h :i ls lafpr djus rfkk VªkUtsD'ku dks lekir djus ds fy, ^dfev* (Commit) fy[kk tkrk gsa ^dfev* dfku vr;ar gh ljy gsa blesa dsoy,d gh 'kcn& 'COMMIT' gksrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % COMMIT; fdlh VªkUtsD'ku ds var esa fy[kk x;k ^dfev* dfku ml VªkUtsD'ku }kjk fdlh Vscy ds MkVk esa fd;s x, lelr ifjorzuksa dks LFkk;h :i ls lafpr dj nsrk gs rfkk VªkUtsD'ku lekir gks tkrk gsa ^dfev* dk iz;ksx fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES (1, Shridhar,45000, HOD, CS ) INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES (2, Kamal,45000, HOD, IT ) INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES (3, Sandeep,45000, HOD, EL ) INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES (4, L.Solanki,45000, HOD, EF ) UPDATE Faculty SET salary=salary WHERE desgn= HOD COMMIT 200 bldk vkmviqv gksxk % Commit complete. 'Faculty' Vscy esa ifjorzu djus ds ckn 'Update' dk;z dk vuqeksnu (Confirmation) fd;k tk,xka (B) ^lsoikwbav* (Savepoint) ge tkurs gsa fd fdlh VªkUtsD'ku }kjk fd;s x, ifjorzuksa dks LFkk;h :i ls lafpr djus ds fy, VªkUtsD'ku ds var esa 'COMMIT' dfku fy[kk tkrk gsa ijurq] dqn fo'ks"k ifjflfk;k,slh Hkh gks ldrh gsa] ftuesa VªkUtsD'ku ds fdlh fof'k"v fcanq ls vkxs c<+us ls iwoz ml fcanq rd fd;s x, ifjorzuksa dks lafpr djuk gks rfkk blds ckn Hkh VªkUtsD'ku dks tkjh j[kuk gksa 'COMMIT' dfku ds iz;ksx }kjk,slk dj ikuk lehko ugha gs] D;ksafd 'COMMIT' ifjorzuksa dks lafpr djus ds lkfk gh VªkUtsD'ku dks lekir Hkh dj nsrk gs rfkk blds ckn vkus okys dfkuksa dks vkwjsdy }kjk,d u;k VªkUtsD'ku ekuk tkrk gsa bl lel;k dk lek/ku djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'Savepoint' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;g dfku fdlh VªkUtsD'ku ds fof'k"v fcanq dks fpfugr djrk gs rfkk VªkUtsD'ku izfø;k ds nksjku ml fcanq rd fd;s x, lelr ifjorzuksa dks lafpr dj ysrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% SAVEPOINT <Name of_the_savepoint>;

201 'SAVEPOINT' dfku fdlh VªkUtsD'ku esa blds iwoz fy[ks x, dfkuksa dks lafpr dj ysrk gsa ijurq] ;g VªkUtsD'ku dks lekir ugha djrka vr% vko';drk gksus ij bu ifjorzuksa dks 'ROLLBACK' ds }kjk iqu% fujlr Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa ijurq] ;fn 'ROLLBACK' dfku ds }kjk dsoy fdlh ^lsoikwbav* ds ckn fd;s x, ifjorzuksa dks gh fujlr djuk gks] rks,slh flfkfr esa ml ^lsoikwbav* dk myys[k djuk vko';d gksrk gsa,d VªkUtsD'ku esa vko';drkuqlkj,d ls vf/d ^lsoikwbav* Hkh cuk, tk ldrs gsaa vr% izr;sd lsoikwbav dks igpkuus ds fy, bls,d uke fn;k tkrk gsa mijksdr fluvsdl esa] <Name_of_the_Savepoint>, fdlh lsoikwbav ds fy, iz;ksxdùkkz }kjk ifjhkkf"kr uke gsa ;g dksbz Hkh,slk uke gks ldrk gs] ftls vkwjsdy esa fdlh osfj;scy ds uke ls lacaf/r fu;eksa dk è;ku j[kdj cuk;k x;k gksa fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk lsoikwbav dk iz;ksx le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % /* SQL Transaction Statements */ SAVEPOINT INSCOMP; /* Use of Savepoint */ /* SQL Transaction Statements */ (C) ^jksycsd* dfku ('ROLLBACK' Statement) ge ns[k pqds gsa fd vkwjsdy esa fdlh VªkUtsD'ku ds }kjk Vscy ds MkVk esa fd;s tk jgs ifjorzuksa dks LFkk;h :i ls lafpr djus ds fy, 'COMMIT' dfku fy[kk tkrk gsa ijurq] ;fn bu dfkuksa dks fujlr djds MkVk dks iqu% VªkUtsD'ku ls iwoz dh flfkfr ykuk gks] rks ;g dk;z 'ROLLBACK' dfku ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa ;g dfku 'COMMIT' ls iw.kzr% foijhr gsa,d vksj] tgk 'COMMIT' dfku fdlh VªkUtsD'ku ds lelr ifjorzuksa dks LFkk;h :i ls lafpr dj nsrk gs] ogha nwljh vksj 'ROLLBACK' dfku VªkUtsD'ku esa fd;s x, lelr ifjorzuksa vfkok fdlh fof'k"v lsoikwbav ds ckn fd;s x, ifjorkzuksa dks iw.kzr% fujlr dj nsrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % vkwjsdy VªkUtsD'ku tgk ] WORK ROLLBACK [WORK] [TO[SAVEPOINT] <Name_of_the_savepoint>]; SAVEPOINT <Name_of_the_Savepoint> dk iz;ksx ANSI laxrrk (Compatibility) ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa bldk iz;ksx osdfyid gksrk gsa fdlh fof'k"v lsoikwbav rd fd;s x, ifjorzuksa dks fujlr djus ds fy, bldk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;g ml lsoikwbav dk uke gs] ftlds ckn VªkUtsD'ku esa fd;s x, ifjorzuksa dks fujlr djuk gksa vkwjsdy esa 'ROLLBACK' dfku dk iz;ksx 'SAVEPOINT' ds lkfk vfkok blds ckn Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;fn 'SAVEPOINT' dk iz;ksx u fd;k x;k gks] rks 'ROLLBACK' dfku orzeku (Current) VªkUtsD'ku ds lhkh ifjorzuksa dks fujlr djrk gs] lelr lsoikwbav fevk nsrk gs,oa VªkUtsD'ku dks lekir dj nsrk gsa blh izdkj 'ROLLBACK' ds lkfk 'SAVEPOINT' dk iz;ksx djus ij VªkUtsD'ku esa ml fof'k"v lsoikwbav ds ckn fd;s x, lhkh ifjorzu fujlr gks tkrs gsa rfkk ml lsoikwbav ds ckn fufezr lelr lsoikwbav Hkh fev tkrs gsaa 'ROLLBACK' dfku ds iz;ksx dks fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa Li"V fd;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k 1 % INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES (1, Shridhar,45000, HOD, CS ) INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES (2, Kamal,45000, HOD, IT ) 201

202 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES (3, Sandeep,45000, HOD, EL ) INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES (4, L.Solanki,45000, HOD, EF ) UPDATE Faculty SET salary=salary WHERE desgn= HOD ROLLBACK vkmviqv gksxk % Rollback complete. 'Faculty' Vscy esa iafdr;k Mkyus,oa v ru (update) djus dk dk;z 'ROLLBACK' dfku ds }kjk fujlr gks tk,xka mnkgj.k 2 : INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES (1, Shridhar,45000, HOD, CS ) INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES (2, Kamal,45000, HOD, IT ) INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES (3, Sandeep,45000, HOD, EL ) INSERT INTO Faculty VALUES (4, L.Solanki,45000, HOD, EF ) SAVEPOINT inscomp UPDATE Faculty SET salary=salary WHERE desgn= HOD ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT inscomp bldk vkmviqv gksxk % Rollback complete. ;gka Vscy esa iafdr;k Mkyus dk dk;z okil ugha fd;k tkrk gsa dsoy 'Salary' esa 500 tksm+us dk dk;z vimsv ugha fd;k tkrk D;ksafd UPDATE LVsVesaV lso fcanq 'inscomp' ds ckn gsa 14.2 ykwdl (Locks) ge tkurs gsa fd fdlh O;olk;] O;kikj vfkok fohkkx ls lacaf/r MkVk dks lqjf{kr :i ls lafpr djuk,oa ljyrkiwozd izkir djuk,d MkVkcsl ds fuekz.k dk izeq[k mís'; gksrk gsa fjys'kuy MkVkcsl (mnk- vkwjsdy) esa ;g MkVk fofhkuu rkfydkvksa (Tables) ds :i esa j[kk tkrk gsa le; ij bl MkVk dk iz;ksx fofhkuu dk;ks±,oa izfø;kvksa ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh Vscy ds MkVk ij fd;s tk jgs ifjorzuksa ds fy;s iz;qdr SQL dfkuksa dh J` [kyk dks vkwjsdy esa VªkUtsD'ku dgk tkrk gsa izr;sd VªkUtsD'ku ds fy, MkVkcsl ds fdlh Vscy dks,sdlsl djus o MkVk izkir djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa dqn VªkUtsD'ku MkVk esa ifjorzu Hkh djrs gsaa MkVkcsl esa lafpr MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Integrity) dks cuk, j[kuk vr;ar vko';d gksrk gsa pw fd] vkwjsdy,d efyv;wtj (Multiuser) fllve gs] vr% blesa vusd iz;ksxdùkkz (user),d gh le; ij,d LkkFk,d gh Vscy ds MkVk ij dk;z dj ldrs gsaa,slh flfkfr esa ;g Hkh lehko gs fd,d ls vf/d ;wtlz,d gh le; ij Vscy ds MkVk dks,sdlsl ;k ifjofrzr djus dk iz;kl djsaa bls dkwudjulh (Concurrency) dgrs gsaa cgq&iz;ksdrk (Multi-user) fllve gksus ds dkj.k vkwjsdy esa MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Integrity) dks cuk, j[kuk vr;ar egroiw.kz gsa lkfk gh] MkVk dks lqjf{kr j[kus ds fy;s leorhz vfhkxe (Concurrent Access) dks fu;af=kr djuk Hkh vko';d gsa bl dk;z ds fy;s vkwjsdy }kjk iz;qdr fu;a=k.k rduhd dks dkwudjulh duvªksy (Concurrency Control) dgrs gsaa bls fø;kfuor djus ds fy;s,d fof/ dk iz;ksx gksrk gs] ftls ^ykwd* (Lock) dgk tkrk gsa bl Hkkx esa ykwd ds fo"k; esa folrkj ls tkusaxsa vo/kj.kk (Concept) 202 ykwd (Lock) vkwjsdy dh,d fof/ gs] ftlds }kjk fdlh MkVk ij leorhz vfhkxe (Concurrent Access) iznku djrs gq, Hkh bldh v[k.mrk dks lqfuf'pr cuk, j[kk tk ldrk gsa vkwjsdy esa

203 ykwfdax dh ;g izfø;k iw.kzr% Lopkfyr (Automatic) gksrh gs rfkk blesa iz;ksdrk ds glr{ksi (User Intervention) dh dksbz vko';drk ugha gksrha ykwfdax dh bl Lopkfyr izfø;k dks beiyhflv ykwfdax (Implicit Locking) dgk tkrk gsa blds vfrfjdr vkwjsdy vius ;wtj dks ;g lqfo/k Hkh iznku djrk gs fd og ;wtj fdlh Vscy vfkok lalk/u ij ykwd dk iz;ksx dj ldsa bl izdkj dh ykwfdax dks,dliyhflv ykwfdax (ExplicitLocking) dgk tkrk gsa bldk vfkz ;g gs fd vkwjsdy esa ykwfdax nks izdkj dh gksrh gs % vkwjsdy VªkUtsD'ku (a) (b) beiyhflv ykwfdax (Implicit Locking),DlIyhflV ykwfdax (Explicit Locking) (a) beiyhflv ykwfdax (Implicit Loking) ;g vkwjsdy esa ykwfdax dh fmiqkwyv fof/ gsa pw fd] ;g iw.kzr% Lopkfyr gksrh gsa vr% bldk iz;ksx djrs le; vkwjsdy batu dks nks ckrksa dk è;ku j[kuk im+rk gsa ;s nks fcanq gsa % (i) iz;ksx fd;s tk jgs ykwd dk izdkj (Type) (ii) iz;ksx fd;s tk jgs ykwd dk Lrj (Level) bl fcanqvksa dk folr`r fooj.k fueufyf[kr gs % (i) ykwd ds izdkj (Types of Locks) vkwjsdy esa Vscy MkVk ij fd;s tkus okys dk;ks± dks nks Jsf.k;ksa esa fohkkftr fd;k tk ldrk gsa igyh Js.kh esa MkVk dks Vscy ls izkir djus,oa i<+us ds dk;z (Retrieving & Reading) dks j[kk tk ldrk gsa bls leku;r% 'Read operation' dgk tkrk gsa MkVkcsl ls MkVk ns[kus ds fy;s 'SELECT...' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl dk;z ds }kjk MkVk esa dksbz ifjorzu ugha fd;k tkrk gsa vr% blds }kjk MkVk dh v[k.mrk izhkkfor ugha gksrha nwljh Js.kh esa os dk;z j[ks tk ldrs gsa] ftuds }kjk Vscy dh flfkfr esa ifjorzu fd;k tkrk gsa mnk- Vscy esa u;k MkVk j[kuk (Insertion), Vscy ds MkVk dks v ru djuk (Updation) rfkk Vscy ls MkVk dks fevkuk (Deletion)A bu dk;ks± ds fy;s Øe'k% 'INSERT', 'UPDATE' rfkk 'DELETE', dfkuksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bu dk;ks± dks lkeku;r% 'Write operations' dgk tkrk gsa pw fd] Read operation ds }kjk MkVk dh v[k.mrk ij dksbz izhkko im+us dh lehkkouk ugha gksrh] vr%,d lkfk,d ls vf/d ;wtlz dks Hkh MkVk dks ns[kus dh vuqefr nh tk ldrh gsa bl izdkj dh vuqefr (Permission) iznku djus ds fy;s vkwjsdy batu }kjk Vscy ij 'ks;mz (Shared) ykwd dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] ftlds }kjk,d lkfk vusd ;wtlz,d gh Vscy dk MkVk ns[k ldrs gsaa ijarq] Read operation ds foijhr Wirte operation ds }kjk MkVk esa ifjorzu fd;k tkrk gsa vr% leorhz vfhkxe (Concurrent Access) MkVk dh v[k.mrk dks izhkkfor dj ldrk gsa bl lel;k dk lek/ku djus ds fy, vkwjsdy batu }kjk ^,DlDywflo (Exclusive) ykwd* dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl flfkfr esa dsoy ogh ;wtj MkVk dks,dlsl,oa ifjofrzr dj ldrk gs] ftlus lcls igys bldh ekax (Request) dh gks (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE dfku ds }kjk)a ;fn,d ;wtj }kjk MkVk esa fd;s tk jgs ifjorzuksa dh izfø;k ds nksjku gh dksbz vu; ;wtj Hkh mlh MkVk dks izkir djuk pkgs] rks mls rc rd izrh{kk djuh gksxh] tc rd igyk ;wtj viuh izfø;k iw.kz u dj ysa ftl MkVk dks ifjofrzr fd;k tk jgk gs] mls i<+us (Reading) dh vuqefr Hkh ugha nh tkrha bl izdkj vkwjsdy batu ^,DlDywflo ykwd* ds }kjk Write operations ds nksjku MkVk dh v[k.mrk dks lqfuf'pr djrk gsa 203

204 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy (ii) ykwd ds Lrj (Levels of Locks) ge tkurs gsa fd vkwjsdy esa MkVk dks rkfydkvksa (Tables) esa j[kk tkrk gsa izr;sd Vscy esa MkVk] iafdr;ksa (Rows) ds :i esa O;ofLFkr gksrk gsa fdlh Vscy ls MkVk dks izkir djrs le; rhu flfkfr;k gks ldrh gsa % (1) Vscy dh dsoy,d iafdr (Row) izhkkfor gks jgh gsa (2) Vscy dh dsoy dqn iafdr;ksa dk,d lewg (Page) izhkkfor gks jgk gsa (3) Vscy dh lhkh iafdr;k (vfkkzr~ leiw.kz Vscy) izhkkfor gks jgh gsaa mijksdr rhu flfkfr;ksa ds vk/kj ij vkwjsdy esa ykwfdax ds rhu Lrj gksrs gsaa ;s gsa % (a) iafdr Lrj (Row Level) (b) ist Lrj (Page Level) (c) Vscy Lrj (Table Level) fdlh Vscy ij yxk, tkus okys ykwd ds Lrj dk fu/kzj.k vkwjsdy batu }kj 'WHERE Clause' ds vk/kj ij bl izdkj fd;k tkrk gs % (a) ;fn 'WHERE Clause' }kjk Vscy dh dsoy,d iafdr (Row) izhkkfor gks jgh gs] rks bl flfkfr esa ^iafdr&lrj (Row level) ykwd* dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (b) ;fn 'WHERE Clause' }kjk Vscy ds MkVk dk,d lewg (Set/page) izhkkfor gks jgk gs] rks bl flfkfr esa ^ist&lrj (Page-lavel) ykwd* dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (c) ;fn 'WHERE Clause' vuqiflfkr gs] vfkkzr~ Dosjh ds }kjk leiw.kz Vscy izhkkfor gks jgk gs] rks,slh flfkfr esa ^Vscy&Lrj (Table-level) ykwd* dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ykwfdax izfø;k dks fofhkuu Lrjksa esa fohkkftr djus dk ykhk ;g gs fd,d lkfk vusd iz;ksdrk (Users),d gh Vscy ij fofhkuu dk;z dj ldrs gs aa tsls& ;fn,d ;wtj }kjk Vscy dh dsoy,d gh iafdr ij dk;z fd;k tk jgk gs] rks,slh flfkfr esa ml ;wtj dks ml fof'k"v iafdr ds fy, iafdr&lrj (Row level) ykwd iznku djds 'ks"k Vscy dks iz;skx djus dh vuqefr vu; iz;ksdrkvksa dks nh tk ldrh gsa blls vu; iz;ksdrkvksa dks izrh{kk djus dh vko';drk ugha gksrha bl izdkj izn'kzu (Performance),oa dk;z{kerk (Efficiency) dks c<+k;k tk ldrk gsa 204 (b),dliyhflv ykwfdax (Explicit Locking) ; fi vkwjsdy esa MkVk dh v[k.mrk dks lqfuf'pr djus ds fy;s,d l{ke beiyhflv ykwfdax (Implicit Locking) dh lqfo/k gksrh gsa ijurq] izr;sd O;olk; vfkok vuqiz;ksx dh fofhkuu flfkfr;ksa ds fy;s,d iz;ksdrk ifjhkkf"kr ykwfdax ('User Defined Locking') lqfo/k dk gksuk Hkh vko';d gsa vkwjsdy esa ;g lqfo/k,dliyhflv ykwfdax (Explicit Locking) uked fof/ ds }kjk iznku dh tkrh gsa vkwjsdy esa ^,DlIyhflV ykwfdax* lnso gh ^beiyhflv ykwfdax* dks izr;knsf'kr (Override) djrh gsa vfkkzr~ ;fn fdlh iafdr vfkok Vscy ds fy;s ;wtj }kjk,d ^,DlIyhflV ykwd* ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gs] rks ml iafdr ;k Vscy ij blh ykwd dk iz;ksx fd;k tk,xk] beiyhflv ykwd dk ughaa fdlh iafdr vfkok Vscy ij,dliyhflv ykwd dks ifjhkkf"kr djus ds fy;s fueufyf[kr nks fof/ ;ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa (i) 'SELECT...FOR UPDATE' dfku (ii) 'LOCK TABLE' dfku bu nksuksa fof/;ksa dk fooj.k fueufyf[kr gs % (i) 'SELECT...FOR UPDATE' dfku μ ;g vkwjsdy esa Vscy dh fdlh iafdr (Row) ij,d ykwd ifjhkkf"kr djus dh rduhd gsa Vscy dh fdlh iafdr esa 'UPDATE' dfku ds }kjk

205 dksbz ifjorzu djus ls iwoz bl ckr dh tkudkjh vkwjsdy batu dks nsus ds fy;s ;wtj }kjk bl dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % SELECT * FROM <Table_Name> WHERE <Condition> FOR UPDATE; vkwjsdy VªkUtsD'ku mijksdr fluvsdl esa] <Table_Name> WHERE <Condition> ml Vscy dk uke gs] ftldh fdlh iafdr ij ykwd dk iz;ksx djuk gs SA Vscy dh ftl iafdr dks ykwd djuk gs] mldh igpku ds fy;s 'WHERE <condition>' ds }kjk dksbz damh'ku nh tkrh gsa ;g è;ku j[kuk vko'd gs fd fdlh Vscy vfkok iafdr ij dsoy ogh ;wtj ykwd dks ifjhkkf"kr dj ldrs gsa] ftuds ikl Vscy ds iz;ksx dk vf/dkj gksa vfkkzr~ ;wtj dsoy Lo;a ds fdlh Vscy vfkok fdlh,sls Vscy ij gh ykwd dj iz;skx dj ldrk gs] ftlds fy;s mls 'GRANT' dfku ds }kjk izkf/dkj (Privileges) izkir gsaa SELECT...FOR UPDATE dk iz;ksx fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % User A> ge dyiuk djs a fd 'STUDENTS' uked,d Vscy gs] rfkk user 'A',oa user 'B' nksuksa bldh,d gh iafdr ij dk;z djuk pkgrs gsaa ekuk fd] user A us fueufyf[kr dfku ds }kjk Vscy dh ml iafdr ij ykwd ifjhkkf"kr dj fn;k gs % SELECT * FROM STUDENT WHERE ROLL_NO = '111' FOR UPDATE;,slk djus ij 'STUDENTS' Vscy dh ftl iafdr ds fy;s 'ROLL_NO' uked dkwye dk eku '111' gks] og iafdr user A ds fy;s ykwd dj nh xbz gsa dksbz Hkh ykwd gvkus ds fy, 'COMMIT' vfkok 'ROLLBACK' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkuk vfuok;z gksrk gsa vfkkzr~] tc rd USER A }kjk 'COMMIT' vfkok 'ROLLBACK' dfku u fy[kk tk,] rc rd bl iafdr ij yxk;k x;k ykwd lfø; jgrk gsa ;fn user A }kjk ykwd gvk, tkus ds iwoz gh user B fueufyf[kr dfku dk iz;ksx djrk gs % User B> SELECT * FROM STUDENTS WHERE ROLL_NO = '111' FOR UP- DATE; pw fd] bl iafdr ij igys user A }kjk yxk;k x;k ykwd vhkh Hkh lfø; gs] vr% iafdr dks ykwd djus ds fy;s user B dks rc rd izrh{kk djuh gks] tc rd fd user A viuh izfø;k dks iw.kz djds ykwfdax dks lekir u djsa ;gk user B dks u rks dksbz lans'k izkir gksrk gs vksj u gh izkweiv (Prompt) miyc/ gksrk gsa bl izdkj ds vuko';d izrh{kk le; dks cpkus ds fy, 'SELECT...FOR UPDATE' dfku ds lkfk 'NOWAIT' fodyi dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;fn bldk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gs] rks Vscy dh ftl iafdr ds fy, 'SELECT...FOR UPDATE' fy[kk x;k gs] ;fn ml ij igys ls gh dksbz vu; ykwd lfø; gs] rks vkwjsdy bl orzeku (vu; iz;ksdrk }kjk iz;qdr) dfku dks lekir djds,d lans'k iznf'kzr djrk gs rfkk iqu% izkeiv iznku dj nsrk gsa 'NOWAIT' fodyi ds iz;ksx dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % SELECT * FROM <Table_Name> WHERE <condition> FOR UPDATE NOWAIT; 205

206 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 206 mijksdr mnkgj.k esa user B }kjk NOWAIT dk iz;ksx fueu izdkj ls fd;k tk ldrk gs % User B> SELECT * FROM STUDENT WHERE ROLL_NO = '111' FOR UPDATE NOWAIT; pw fd] ;gk bl iafdr ij igys gh user A }kjk yxk;k x;k ykwd lfø; gs] vr% user B bl ij ykwd dk iz;ksx ugha dj ldrka ijurq] ;gk NOWAIT fodyi dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gs] vr% User B dks fueufyf[kr lans'k izkir gksxk % SQL> : resource busy and acquire with nowait specified. blds ckn user B }kjk fn;k x;k 'SELECT...FOR UPDATE' dfku lekir gks tk,xk rfkk mls iqu% izkweiv izkir gksxka ;fn user B }kjk NOWAIT dk iz;ksx u fd;k x;k gks] rks mls dksbz lans'k vfkok izkweiv ugha izkir gksxk rfkk user A }kjk ykwd gvk, tkus dh izrh{kk djuh gksxha ;g Li"V :i ls le>uk vko';d gs] fdlh Hkh flfkfr esa user A }kjk dh tk jgh izfø;k dks lekir djds User B dks ykwd iznku ugha fd;k tk,xka 'SELECT...FOR UPDATE' dfku dks fueufyf[kr fodyiksa ds lkfk iz;ksx ugha fd;k tk ldrk % (a) 'DISTINCT' Clause (b) 'GROUP BY' Clause (c) 'Set' Operations (d) 'GROUP' Functions (ii) 'LOCK TABLE' dfku μ ;g vkwjsdy eas,dliyhflv ykwd ds iz;ksx dh nwljh fof/ gsa ge tkurs gsa fd,dliyhflv ykwd dh igyh fof/ vfkkzr~ 'SELECT...FOR UPDATE' ds }kjk,d Vscy dh fdlh iafdr ij ykwd lfø; fd;k tk ldrk gsa blh izdkj ;fn leiw.kz Vscy dks gh ykwd djuk gks] rks ;g dk;z 'LOCK TABLE' dfku ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % LOCK TABLE <Table_Name> IN {ROW SHARE/ROW EXCLUSIVE/SHARE UPDATE/ SHARE/SHARE ROW EXCLUSIVE/EXCLUSIVE} MODE [NOWAIT]; mijksdr fluvsdl esa] <Table_Name> ml Vscy dk uke gs] ftl ij ykwd lfø; djuk gsa IN (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) bl fodyi ds }kjk ;g fu/kzfjr fd;k tkrk gs fd Vscy ij fdl izdkj ds ykwd dk iz;ksx djuk gsa ykwd fueu esa ls dksbz Hkh gks ldrk gs % Row SHARE μ blds }kjk,d iafdr ij 'ks;mz ykwd yxk;k tkrk gsa Row EXCLUSIVE μ bl fodyi ds }kjk iafdr ij,dld;wflo ykwd lfø; gks tkrk gsa SHARE UPDATE MkVk dks vimsv djus ds fy;s bl ykwd dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa SHARE ;g fodyi 'ks;mz ykwd dks lfø; djrk gsa dsoy Read operations fd;s tk ldrs gsaa SHARE Row EXCLUSIVE ;g fdlh iafdr ij,d ;wtj ds fy;s,dld;wflo ykwd rfkk vu; ;wtlz ds fy, 'ks;mz ykwd lfø; djrk gsa vfkkzr~ vu; ;wtj dsoy MkVk ns[k ldrs gsaa tcfd] og ;wtj ftlds fy;s,dldywflo ykwd lfø; gs] MkVk ifjofrzr Hkh dj ldrk gsa

207 (f) EXCLUSIVE dsoy mlh lalk/u ij Dosjh nh tk ldrh gs] ftl ij ykwd lfø; gsa vu; dksbz dk;z ugha fd;k tk ldrka NOWWAIT bldk iz;ksx osdfyid gsa ;fn bls iz;ksx fd;k x;k gks] rks ;fn Vscy igys gh fdlh vu; ;wtj }kjk ykwd dj fn;k x;k gs] rks vkwjsdy batu orzeku (ckn esa ykwd lfø; djus okys) ;wtj dks =kqfv lans'k (Error message) iznf'kzr djrk gsa ;fn bl fodyi dk iz;ksx u fd;k tk,] rks vkwjsdy batu bl Vscy ij igys ;wtj }kj ykwd ds gvk, tkus dh izrh{kk djrk jgrk gsa 'LOCK TABLE' dfku ds iz;ksx ds fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % vkwjsdy VªkUtsD'ku 14.3 ykwd dks gvkuk (Releasing a Lock) ;fn fdlh ;wtj }kjk MkVkcsl ds fdlh lalk/u (Resource) tsls& Vscy vfkok iafdr ds MkVk dks ns[kus vfkok blesa ifjorzu djus ds fy;s bl ij fdlh ykwd dks lfø; fd;k x;k gs] rks ;wtj izfø;k iw.kz gks tkus ij ;wtj dks og ykwd gvk nsuk pkfg,] rkfd vu; ;wtj ml lalk/u (Vscy@iafDr vkfn) ds MkVk ds lkfk dk;z dj ldsaa dksbz ykwd fueufyf[kr rhu flfkfr;ksa esa gvk fn;k tkrk gs% (a) VªkUtsD'ku dk lekir djus ds fy, 'COMMIT' dfku dk iz;ksx djus ija (b) VªkUtsD'ku dks fujlr djus ds fy, 'ROLLBACK' dfku dk iz;ksx djus ija (c) fdlh fof'k"v lsoikwbav rd 'ROLLBACK' dfku dk iz;ksx djus ija bl flfkfr esa fof'k"v lsoikwbav ds ckn ifjhkkf"kr fd, x, ykwd gvk fn;s tkrs gsaa dk;z iw.kz gks tkus ij ykwd dks gvk nsuk pkfg,] vu;fkk vu; ;wtlz (Users) dks vfuf'pr dky rd izrh{kk djuh im+rh gs] ftlls le; u"v gksrk gs] rfkk mrikndrk (Productivity) de gksus ls izn'kzu (Performance) izhkkfor gksrk gsas bls fueu mnkgj.k ls le>k;k x;k gsa mnkgj.k % mijksdr 'Lock...TABLE' mnkgj.k esa ykwd fd;s x;s Vscy ds fy;s fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa ykwd gvk;k tk jgk gsa Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- VªkatsD'ku ls vki D;k le>rs gs a \ 2- lsoikwbav ds D;k dk;z gsa \ 3- beiyhflv ykw dx D;k gsa \ 207

208 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy lkjka'k (Summary) fdlh Vscy ds MkVk ij fd;s tk jgs ifjorzuksa ds fy;s iz;qdr SQL dfkuksa dh Ük` [kyk dks vkwjsdy esa ^VªkUtsD'ku* (Transaction) dgk tkrk gsa Vscy ds MkVk esa ifjorzu dh izfø;k ls lacaf/r ;s SQL dfku,d&nwljs ls rkfdzd :i ls tqm+s gq, gksrs gsaa vr% fdlh VªkUtsD'ku ls lacaf/r lhkh dfkuksa dks vkwjsdy,d gh bdkbz (Unit) ekurk gsa vkwjsdy esa VªkUtsD'ku dks izkjehk djus ds fy, dksbz fof'k"v dfku ugha gksrka Vscy ds MkVk es fd;s tk jgs ifjorzuksa ls lacaf/r igyk dfku fy[krs gh VªkUtsD'ku izkjehk gks tkrk gsa lelr ifjorzu dj fn;s tkus ij bu ifjorzuksa dks eseksjh esa LFkk;h :i ls lafpr djus rfkk VªkUtsD'ku dks lekir djus ds fy, ^dfev* (Commit) fy[kk tkrk gsa 'COMMIT' ifjorzuksa dks lafpr djus ds lkfk gh VªkUtsD'ku dks lekir Hkh dj nsrk gsa 'SAVEPOINT' dfku fdlh VªkUtsD'ku esa blds iwoz fy[ks x, dfkuksa dks lafpr dj ysrk gsa ijurq] ;g VªkUtsD'ku dks lekir ugha djrka 'ROLLBACK' dfku VªkUtsD'ku esa fd;s x, lelr ifjorzuksa vfkok fdlh fof'k"v lsoikwbav ds ckn fd;s x, ifjorkzuksa dks iw.kzr% fujlr dj nsrk gsa cgq&iz;ksdrk (Multi-user) fllve gksus ds dkj.k vkwjsdy esa MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Integrity) dks cuk, j[kuk vr;ar egroiw.kz gsa lkfk gh] MkVk dks lqjf{kr j[kus ds fy;s leorhz vfhkxe (Concurrent Access) dks fu;af=kr djuk Hkh vko';d gsa bl dk;z ds fy;s vkwjsdy }kjk iz;qdr fu;a=k.k rduhd dks dkwudjulh duvªksy (Concurrency Control) dgrs gsaa bls fø;kfuor djus ds fy;s,d fof/ dk iz;ksx gksrk gs] ftls ^ykwd* (Lock) dgk tkrk gsa beiyhflv ykwfdax vkwjsdy esa ykwfdax dh fmiqkwyv fof/ gsa Read operation ds }kjk MkVk dh v[k.mrk ij dksbz izhkko im+us dh lehkkouk ugha gksrh] vr%,d lkfk,d ls vf/d ;wtlz dks Hkh MkVk dks ns[kus dh vuqefr nh tk ldrh gsa bl izdkj dh vuqefr (Permission) iznku djus ds fy;s vkwjsdy batu }kjk Vscy ij 'ks;mz (Shared) ykwd dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] ftlds }kjk,d lkfk vusd ;wtlz,d gh Vscy dk MkVk ns[k ldrs gsaa Write operation ds }kjk MkVk esa ifjorzu fd;k tkrk gsa vr% leorhz vfhkxe (Concurrent Access) MkVk dh v[k.mrk dks izhkkfor dj ldrk gsa bl lel;k dk lek/ku djus ds fy, vkwjsdy batu }kjk ^,DlDywflo (Exclusive) ykwd* dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn 'WHERE Clause' }kjk Vscy dh dsoy,d iafdr (Row) izhkkfor gks jgh gs] rks bl flfkfr esa ^iafdr&lrj (Row level) ykwd* dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn 'WHERE Clause' }kjk Vscy ds MkVk dk,d lewg (Set/page) izhkkfor gks jgk gs] rks bl flfkfr esa ^ist&lrj (Page-lavel) ykwd* dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 208 ;fn 'WHERE Clause' vuqiflfkr gs] vfkkzr~ Dosjh ds }kjk leiw.kz Vscy izhkkfor gks jgk gs] rks,slh flfkfr esa ^Vscy&Lrj (Table-level) ykwd* dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa

209 izr;sd O;olk; vfkok vuqiz;ksx dh fofhkuu flfkfr;ksa ds fy;s,d iz;ksdrk ifjhkkf"kr ykwfdax ('User Defined Locking') lqfo/k dk gksuk Hkh vko';d gsa vkwjsdy esa ;g lqfo/ k,dliyhflv ykwfdax (Explicit Locking) uked fof/ ds }kjk iznku dh tkrh gsa vkwjsdy esa ^,DlIyhflV ykwfdax* lnso gh ^beiyhflv ykwfdax* dks izr;knsf'kr (Override) djrh gsa vkwjsdy VªkUtsD'ku 'SELECT...FOR UPDATE' dfku vkwjsdy esa Vscy dh fdlh iafdr (Row) ij,d ykwd ifjhkkf"kr djus dh rduhd gsa ;fn leiw.kz Vscy dks gh ykwd djuk gks] rks ;g dk;z 'LOCK TABLE' dfku ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. fdlh Vscy ds MkVk ij fd;s tk jgs ifjorzuksa ds fy;s iz;qdr SQL dfkuksa dh Ük` [kyk dks vkwjsdy esa ^VªkUtsD'ku* (Transaction) dgk tkrk gsa Vscy ds MkVk esa ifjorzu dh izfø;k ls lacaf/r ;s SQL dfku,d&nwljs ls rkfdzd :i ls tqm+s gq, gksrs gsaa vr% fdlh VªkUtsD'ku ls lacaf/r lhkh dfkuksa dks vkwjsdy,d gh bdkbz (Unit) ekurk gsa 2. bl lel;k dk lek/ku djus ds fy, vkwjsdy esa 'Savepoint' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;g dfku fdlh VªkUtsD'ku ds fof'k"v fcanq dks fpfugr djrk gs rfkk VªkUtsD'ku izfø;k ds nksjku ml fcanq rd fd;s x, lelr ifjorzuksa dks lafpr dj ysrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% SAVEPOINT <Name of_the_savepoint>; 3. beiyhflv ykwfdax (Implicit Loking) ;g vkwjsdy esa ykwfdax dh fmiqkwyv fof/ gsa pw fd] ;g iw.kzr% Lopkfyr gksrh gsa vr% bldk iz;ksx djrs le; vkwjsdy batu dks nks ckrksa dk è;ku j[kuk im+rk gsa ;s nks fcanq gsa % (i) iz;ksx fd;s tk jgs ykwd dk izdkj (Type) (ii) iz;ksx fd;s tk jgs ykwd dk Lrj (Level) vh;kl (Exercise) 1. vkwjsdy VªkUtsD'ku ls vki D;k le>rs gsa\ 2. laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;s % (a) dfev (Commit) (b) jksycsd (Rollback) (c) lsoikwbuv (Savepoint) 3. dfev (Commit) dfku ds iz;ksx dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 4. vkwjsdy esa ykwdl (Locks) dh vo/kj.kk Li"V dhft;sa MkVkcsl ij ykwd dh iz;ksx dh D;k vko';drk gs\ 5. laf{kir fvii.kh fyf[k;s % (a) ykwd ds izdkj (b) ykwd ds Lrj 209

210 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 6. beiyhflv rfkk,dliyhflv ykwfdax esa D;k varj gs\ 7. 'SELECT...FOR UPDATE' dfku dks folrkj ls le>kb;sa 8.,d mnkgj.k dh lgk;rk ls 'SELECT...FOR UPDATE' dk iz;ksx Li"V dhft;sa 9. 'LOCK...TABLE' ds fluvsdl dh O;k[;k dhft;sa 10. 'LOCK...TABLE' ds iz;ksx dks,d mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>kb;sa 210

211 15 izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku (Procedures and Function) izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku dh vo/kj.kk izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku ds ykhk izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku dk fuekz.k izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku dk fø;kuo;u izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku dks fevkuk 15.1 ifjp; (Introduction) ge bl ckr dh ppkz igys gh dj pqds gs a fd ; fi SQL fdlh MkVkcsl ij dk;z djus ds fy,,d LokHkkfod Hkk"kk gs] ijurq vusd fo'ks"krkvksa ds lkfk gh bleas dqn,slh dfe;k gsa] ftuds dkj.k bls,d iw.kz MkVkcsl izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk ds :i esa iz;ksx ugha fd;k tk ldrka bu dfe;ksa dks nwj djus ds fy, SQL rfkk izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa dh fo'ks"krkvksa dks la;ksftr djds,d ubz MkVkcsl Hkk"kk dk fuekz.k fd;k x;k] ftls PL/SQL dgrs gsaa PL/SQL dh fofhkuu fo'ks"krkvksa] bldh lajpuk] blesa osfj;scy] dkwulvuv br;kfn dk iz;ksx] izksxzke fu;a=k.k ds izdkj] =kqfv&fu;a=k.k] dlzj] vu; lqj{kkred mik; tsls&ykwd] dfev] jksycsd br;kfn dh vo/kj.kk ls ge ifjfpr gks pqds gsaa bl vè;k; esa ge PL/SQL ds nks egroiw.kz MkVkcsl vkwctsdv~l i<sa+xs rfkk mudh vo/kj.kk] fuekz.k] fø;kuo;u] ykhk br;kfn ds ckjs esa folrkj ls tkudkjh izkir djsaxsa ;s nks vkwctsdv~l gsa % (a) izkslhtj (Procedure) (b) iqad'ku (Function) 211

212 a a vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 212 izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku nksuksa esa gh vusd lekurk, gsaa igys ge bu lekurkvksa dh ppkz djsaxsa mlds ckn izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku nksuksa dh Lora=k fo'ks"krkvksa ds ckjs esa tkusaxsa 15.2 vo/kj.kk (Concept) ge tkurs gs a fd fdlh O;kikj] O;olk; vfkok VªkUtsD'ku (Transaction) ls lacaf/r izfø;kvks a ds fø;kuo;u ds fy, MkVk dh vko';drk gksrh gsa eseksjh es a ;g MkVk fofhkuu rkfydkvks a (Tables) ds :i es a,d MkVkcsl es a j[kk tkrk gsa bl MkVk dks izkir djus] bles a ifjorzu djus rfkk bls iqu% MkVkcsl es a lafpr djus br;kfn dk;ks ± ds fy, SQL rfkk PL/SQL dfkuks a dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa PL/SQL dfkuks a ds,d rkfdzd lewg dks PL/SQL izksxzke dgrs gs aa,d PL/SQL izksxzke dks fdlh fof'k"v mís'; vfkok dk;z dh iwfrz ds fy, cuk;k tkrk gsa ;fn bls fdlh tfvy izfø;k dks iw.kz djus ds fy, cuk;k x;k gs] rks bles a dfkuks a dh la[;k cgqr vf/d gksus ij bls le>uk dfbu gks tkrk gsa blds vfrfjdr] izksxzke es a dqn dfkuks a dks,d ls vf/d ckj nksgjkus dh vko';drk Hkh gks ldrh gsa,slh flfkfr es dfkuks a dks ckj&ckj nksgjkus ls u dsoy izksxzke dh yeckbz rfkk blds fø;kuo;u es a yxus okyk le; c<+rk gs] cfyd ckj&ckj dksm (Code) dks fy[kus ij fluvsdl =kqfv;ks a (Syntax Errors) ds mriuu gksus dh lehkkouk Hkh c<+ tkrh gsa bl lel;k dk lek/ku djus rfkk izksxzkfeax dks ljy cukus ds fy;s izksxzke ds fdlh fof'k"v dk;z vfkok izfø;k ls lacaf/r dfkuks a dks,d CykWd (Block) ds :i es ifjhkkf"kr dj fn;k tkrk gsa blds i'pkr~ izksxzke es a tc Hkh bu dfkuks a dks fø;kfuor djus dh vko';drk gks] rks dsoy bl CykWd dk uke fy[k fn;k tkrk gsa,slk djus ij ml CykWd ds lhkh dfku fø;kfuor gks tkrs gs aa bl izdkj ds CykWd dks vkwjsdy es a ^izkslhtj* dgk tkrk gsa fdlh izkslhtj dk iz;ksx djrs le; blesa dksbz eku (Values) Hkh Hksts tk ldrs gsaa izkslhtj dk iz;ksx djrs le; blesa Hksts tkus okys bu ekuksa dks vkx;wzesauv~l (Arguments) dgk tkrk gsa izkslhtj esa bu vkx;wzesuv~l ds MkVk&Vkbi,d leku vfkok vyx&vyx gks ldrs gsa rfkk budh la[;k Hkh,d vfkok vf/d gks ldrh gsa bu vkwx;wzesuv~l ds eku j[kus ds fy, izkslhtj dks ifjhkkf"kr djrs le; dqn osfj;scy Hkh?kksf"kr fd;s tkrs gsaa bugsa isjkehvj (Parameter) dgrs gsaa izkslhtj ds vkx;wzesuv~l o isjkehvlz dh la[;k] Øe rfkk MkVk&Vkbi leku gksuk vfuok;z gsa ftl izdkj dqn fof'k"v izfø;kvksa (Processes) dks iw.kz djus ds fy, izkslhtlz ifjhkkf"kr fd;s tkrs gsa] mlh izdkj dqn fof'k"v dk;ks± dks iw.kz djus ds fy, Hkh CykWd cuk;s tk ldrs gsaa bl izdkj cuk;s x, ^CykWd* dks ^iqad'ku* (Function) dgk tkrk gsa fdlh izkslhtj dh gh rjg iqad'ku esa Hkh vkx;wzesuv~l Hksts tk ldrs gsaa izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku esa eq[; vurj dsoy ;g gs fd izfø;k iw.kz gks tkus ij iqad'ku }kjk vfuok;z :i ls dksbz eku (Value) izr;kofrzr (Return) Hkh fd;k tkrk gsa vfkkzr~ iqad'ku ls,d fjvuz osy;w izkir gksrh gs] tcfd izkslhtj ds }kjk dksbz eku izr;kofrzr fd;k tkuk osdfyid (Optional) gksrk gsa fdlh izkslhtj vfkok iqad'ku esa fueufyf[kr rhu Hkkx gksrs gsa % (a)?kks"k.kkred Hkkx (b) fø;kuo;u Hkkx (c) viokn fu;a=k.k Hkkx budk o.kzu bl izdkj gs % (a)?kks"k.kkred Hkkx (Declrative Part) bl Hkkx esa izkslhtj vfkok iqad'ku esa iz;ksx fd;s tkus okys osfj;scy] dkwulvuv] dlzj br;kfn dks?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa ;s lhkh vkwctsdv~l ml izkslhtj vfkok iqad'ku ds fy, yksdy (Local) gksrs gsaa vfkkzr~ izkslhtj@iqad'ku ds ckgj budk iz;ksx ugha fd;k tk ldrka (b) fø;kuo;u Hkkx (Execution Part) izkslhtj@iqad'ku ds bl Hkkx esa fdlh izfø;k vfkok dk;z ls lacaf/r fø;kuo;u dfku (Executable Statements) fy[ks tkrs gsaa eku iznku (Assign) djuk] fø;kuo;u dks fu;af=kr djuk] MkVk esa ifjorzu djuk br;kfn dk;z Hkh bu

213 dfkuksa ds }kjk gh fd;s tkrs gsaa fdlh iqad'ku }kjk dksbz eku izr;kofrzr fd;s tkus dk dk;z Hkh blh Hkkx esa fd;k tkrk gsa (c) viokn fu;a=k.k Hkkx (Exception Part) fø;kuo;u Hkkx esa fy[ks x, dfkuksa ds fø;kuo;u ds nksjku ;fn dksbz =kqfv mriuu gks tk,] rks mldk mfpr O;oLFkkiu djuk Hkh vko';d gksrk gsa =kqfv;ksa (Errors) dks fu;af=kr djus rfkk vioknksa (Exceptions) ds vk/kj ij buds O;oLFkkiu ds fy;s vko';d dfku bl Hkkx esa fy[ks tkrs gsaa izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku 15.3 ds ykhk (Advantages of Procedure/Function) fdlh PL/SQL izksxzke esa dk iz;ksx djus ds vusd ykhk gsaa buesa ls dqn fueufyf[kr gsa % (a) lqj{kk (Security) (b) izn'kzu (Performance) (c) eseksjh vkoavu (Memory Allocation) (d) mrikndrk (Productivity) (e) v[k.mrk (Integrity) vkb;s] bu ij laf{kir :i ls ppkz djsa % (a) lqj{kk (Security) fdlh izkslhtj@iqad'ku dk iz;ksx MkVk dh lqj{kk dks c<+kus esa lgk;d gks ldrk gsa mnk- ;fn fdlh ;wtj dks,d Vscy ds fdlh fof'k"v dkwye dk gh MkVk ifjofrzr djus dh vuqefr iznku djuh gks] rks bl dk;z ds fy;s,d izkslhtj@iqad'ku ifjhkkf"kr djds ;wtj dks ml izkslhtj@iqad'ku ds iz;ksx dh vuqefr nh tk ldrh gsa,slk djus ij ;wtj dks leiw.kz Vscy ds fy, 'UPDATE' izkf/dkj (Privilege) nsus dh vko';drk ugha gksxha (b) izn'kzu (Performance) izkslhtj@iqad'ku dk iz;ksx djus ls leiw.kz MkVkcsl ds izn'kzu esa o`f¼ gksrh gs] D;ksafd usvodz ij Hksth rfkk izkir dh tkus okyh lwpukvksa dh ek=kk de gks tkus ls usvodz VªSfiQd?kV tkrk gsa izkslhtj@iqad'ku dks ifjhkkf"kr fd;s tkus ds ckn mugsa vkwjsdy batu ds fllve Vscy esa j[krs le; gh deikby (Compile) Hkh dj fy;k tkrk gsa vr% izr;sd ckj bugsa fø;kfuor djus ds iwoz deikby djus dh vko';drk ugha gksrha blls fø;kuo;u le; dh cpr gksrh gsa le; dh ;g cpr Hkh MkVkcsl ds izn'kzu esa o`f¼ djrh gsa izkslhtj@iqad'ku dks,d ckj SGA esa ^yksm* (Load) dj fy;s tkus ij lhkh ;wtlz ogka ls bugsa 'ks;j (Share) djrs gsaa vr% izr;sd ckj fmld (Disk) ls bugsa izkir djus dh vko';drk ugha gksrh] ftlls fmld buiqv@vkmviqv (Disk I/O) esa yxus okyk le; Hkh cprk gsa (c) eseksjh vkoavu (Memory Allocation) pw fd] izkslhtj@iqad'ku esa eseksjh 'ks;j djus dh {kerk gksrh gs] vr% budk iz;ksx eseksjh dh cpr esa lgk;d gksrk gsa fofhkuu ;wtlz fdlh izkslhtj@iqad'ku dh,d gh izfr (Copy) dks 'ks;j dj ldrs gsaa blls eseksjh dh cpr gksrh gsa (d) mrikndrk (Productivity) izkslhtj@iqad'ku dk iz;ksx djus ls fdlh dk;z ls lacaf/r dfkuksa dks,d ls vfèkd ckj fø;kfuor djus ds fy, izr;sd ckj mugsa fy[kus dh vko';drk ugha jg tkrha blls dksm fy[kus esa yxus okys le; dh cpr gksrh gsa lkfk gh izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u (Execution-Time) esa Hkh deh vkrh gsa bl izdkj de le; esa vf/d dk;z fd;k tk ldrk gs] ftlls mrikndrk c<rh gsa (e) v[k.mrk (Integrity) fdlh izkslhtj@iqad'ku ds }kjk mriuu ifj.kkeksa dh 'kq¼rk (Accuracy) dks tkuus ds fy;s bugsa dsoy,d ckj tkapus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa ;s izkslhtj@iqad'ku vkwjsdy batu esa lafpr fd;s tkrs gsaa vkwjsdy batu esa MkVk dh lqj{kk dks cuk, j[kus ds fy;s vusd lqj{kk mik; miyc/ gksrs gsa] ftlls MkVk dh v[k.mrk lqfuf'pr gks tkrh gsa 213

214 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 15.4 izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku dk fuekz.k (Creating Procedure & Function) fdlh Hkh izkslhtj vfkok iqad'ku dk iz;ksx djus ls iwoz mls fufezr,oa ifjhkkf"kr djuk vfuok;z gsa izr;sd dks fdlh fof'k"v dk;z ds fy, cuk;k tkrk gsa ;g dk;z iw.kz djus ds fy, vko';d dfku bl ifjhkk"kk esa fy[ks tkrs gsaa izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku ds fluvsdl esa FkksMk varj gksrk gsa bl varj dks Li"V :i ls le>us ds fy, ge izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku nksuksa ds fluvsdl dk vè;;u Lora=k :i ls djsaxsa lkfk gh] ge buds iz;ksx ls lcafèkr fofhkuu mnkgj.k Hkh ns[ksaxs % (a) izkslhtj dk fuekz.k (Creating a Procedure) PL/SQL esa fdlh izkslhtj dk fuekz.k djus ds fy, 'CREATE PROCEDURE...' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE [<Schema_Name>.] <Name_of_the_Procedure> {<Parameter_Name> In/Out/Inout} <Data_type>,...){Is/As} <Variable_Declaration>; <Constant_Declaration>; BEGIN... /* PL/SQL Procedure... Execution Statements */ EXCEPTION... /* PL/SQL Exception... Handling Statement */ END; mijksdr fluvsdl esa % CREATE OR REPLACE <Schema_Name> ;g crkrk gs fd,d u;k izkslhtj fufezr fd;k tk jgk gsa PL/SQL esa,d gh uke ls,d ls vf/d izkslhtj ugha cuk, tk ldrsa ;fn gesa fdlh iwoz fufezr izkslhtj dks fevk, fcuk mlesa ifjorzu djuk gks vfkok mlds LFkku ij u;k izkslhtj fufezr djuk gks] rks 'OR REPLACE' fy[kk tkrk gsa,slk djus ij iwoz&fufezr izkslhtj dh ifjhkk"kk ifjofrzr gks tkrh gsa ml MkVkcsl Ldhek (Schema) dk uke gs] ftles a izkslhtj fufezr djuk gsa bldk iz;ksx osdfyid gsa ;fn bls u fy[kk tk,] rks vkwjsdy orzeku Ldhek dks gh MhiQkWYV Ldhek ekurk gsa <Name_of_the_Procedure> ;g fufezr fd;s tk jgs izkslhtj ds fy, iz;ksxdùkkz }kjk ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k dksbz uke gksrk gsa ;g dksbz Hkh,slk uke gks ldrk gs] ftls fy[krs le; PL/SQL osfj;scy ukeksa ls lacaf/r fu;eksa dk ikyu fd;k x;k gksa uke lnso gh,slk fy;k tkuk pkfg;s] ftlls izkslhtj ds fuekz.k dk mís'; Li"V gks ldsa 214 <Parameter_Name> ;g izkslhtj dk iz;ksx djrs le; mlesa fn;s tkus okys isjkehvj dk uke gksrk gsa

215 In ;fn <Parameter_Name> ds fy, osy;w iz;ksxdùkkz ls yh tkuh gs] rks bl fodyi dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku Out InOut <Data_Type> IS/AS <Variable_Declaration> <Constant_Declaration> BEGIN EXCEPTION ;fn izkslhtj }kjk x.kuk,a dj ysus ij buds ifj.kke izr;kofrzr djus ds fy, <Parameter_Name> dk iz;ksx fd;k tkuk gks] rks bl fodyi dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;g fodyi crkrk gs S fd <Parameter_Name> dk uke ;wtj ls fy;k tk;sxk rfkk ifj.kke <Parameter_Name> }kjk fjvuz Hkh gksaxsa ;g <Parameter_Name> dk MkVk&Vkbi gs] tks fd PL/SQL dk dksbz Hkh MkVk&Vkbi gks ldrk gsa PL/SQL esa fdlh izkslhtj dk izkjehk n'kkzus ds fy, 'DE- CLARE' dk iz;ksx ugha fd;k tkrka blds LFkku ij izkslhtj esa 'IS' vfkok 'AS' nksuksa esa ls dksbz Hkh 'kcn fy[kk tkrk gsa bldk iz;ksx izkslhtj ds uke dh lekfir,oa o.kzu dk izkjehk crkrk gsa izkslhtj esa iz;ksx fd;s tk jgs lhkh osfj;scy bl Hkkx esa?kksf"kr fd;s tkrs gsaa ;fn izkslhtj esa fdlh dkwulvuv dk iz;ksx fd;k tk jgk gs] rks mls ;gk?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa ;g izkslhtj ds fø;kuo;u Hkkx dk izkjehk n'kkzrk gsa izkslhtj dks ftl mís'; ds fy, ifjhkkf"kr fd;k tk jgk gs] ml mís'; vfkok izfø;k ls lacaf/r dfku bl Hkkx esa fy[ks tkrs gsaa ;fn izkslhtj ds dfkuksa ds fø;kuo;u ds nksjku dksbz =kqfv;k vfkok viokn mriuu gks tk,a] rks mudk fu;a=k.k,oa O;oLFkkiu djuk vko';d gsa viokn fu;a=k.k (Execption Handling) ds fy, bl Hkkx esa dfku (Statements) fy[ks tkrs gsaa END ;g izkslhtj dh lekfir dk lwpd gsa (b) izkslhtj dk fø;kuo;u (Executing a Procedure) ;fn izkslhtj dks ifjhkkf"kr djrs le; PL/SQL ds lhkh fu;eksa dk è;ku j[kk x;k gks] rks izkslhtj liqyrkiwozd deikby (Compile) gksdj vkwjsdy batu esa lafpr (Store) gks tkrk gsa vc viuh vko';drkuqlkj bls fdlh Hkh PL/SQL izksxzke eas fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa fø;kuo;u ds fy;s 'CALL' dek.m ds lkfk dsoy izkslhtj dk uke fy[kus rfkk bldh ifjhkk"kk ds vuqlkj bls vkx;wzesuv~l iznku djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa,slk djus ij izkslhtj dh ifjhkk"kk ds lkfk blds 'BEGIN' Hkkx esa fy[ks x, dfku Lor% gh fø;kfuor gks tkrs gsaa bl izdkj izksxzke es fdruh Hkh ckj izkslhtj dks fø;kfuor fd;k tk ldrk gsa fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk izkslhtj ds fø;kuo;u dks le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % bl izkslhtj esa dezpkjh dh salary vimsv gksrh gsa ;gk mldk ID o jde nh xbz gsa 215

216 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mijksdr PL/SQL izkslhtj esa izkslhtj dk uke UpdataSalary gsa veid rfkk amt IN isjkehvj gsaa vlfkk;h LVksjst ;k x.kukvksa ds fy, iz;ksx fd, x, eseksjh osfj;scy dh&omz 'AS' rfkk 'BEGIN' ds chp fmdys;j fd, tk ldrs gsaa vki bu isjkehvlz dk iz;ksx izkslhtj dh ckwmh esa ns[k ldrs gsaa ykbu 5 ls 7 izkslhtj dh ckwmh cukrh gsaa bl izkslhtj esa dsoy,d gh PL/SQL dfku gsa fueu fp=k Vscy Employee ds rùo n'kkzrk gsa ;g mijksdr izkslhtj dks dkwy djus ls igys dk gsa fueu fp=k eas vki izkslhtj dks dkwy djus dk LVsVesaV ns[ksaxsa dkwy LVsVesaV esa dh&omz 'CALL' dk iz;ksx izkslhtj dks cqykus ds fy, gksrk gsa 'CALL' ds ckn izkslhtj dk uke vkrk gs] ftlds ckn isjkehvj dh osy;w czsdsv esa nh tkrh gsa osy;w dk LFkku o isjkehvj dk Vkbi vkil esa feyuk pkfg,a fp=k esa employee Vscy ds rùo gsa] tks vimsv gksus dh izfø;k ds ckn ds gsaa 216 (c) iqad'ku dk fuekz.k (Creating a Funciton) PL/SQL esa fdlh iqad'ku dk fuekz.k djus ds fy, 'CREATE FUNCTION...' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsaa ge tkurs gsa fd izkslhtj rfkk

217 iqad'ku nksuksa esa gh vusd lekukrk, gksrh gsaa varj dsoy bruk gs fd iqad'ku }kjk vfuok;z :i ls,d eku (value) fjvuz fd;k tkrk gsa vr% iqad'ku fuekz.k ds fluvsdl esa,d 'RETURN...' Hkkx Hkh gksrk gsa fdlh PL/SQL iqad'ku ds fuekz.k ds fy, 'CREATE FUNCTION...' dk fluvsdl fueu gs % CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION [<Schema_Name>.] <Name_of_the_function> (<Parameter_Name> {In/Out/Inout} <data_type>,...) RETURN <Data_type> {IS/AS} <Variable_Declaration.>; <Constant_Declaration>; BEGIN... /* PL/SQL function... Execution statements */ EXCEPTION... /* PL/SQL Exception... Handling Statements */ END; izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku mijksdr fluvsdl esa % CREATE OR REPLACE <Schema_Name> <Name_of_the_function> <Parameter_Name> IN Out In Out ;g crkrk gs fd u;k iqad'ku fufezr fd;k tk jgk gsa PL/SQL esa,d gh uke ls,d ls vf/d iqad'ku ugha cuk, tk ldrsa ;fn gesa igys cuk, x, fdlh iqad'ku dks fevkdj mlh uke ls u;k iqad'ku cukuk gs] vfkkzr~ fdlh iqad'ku dks iqu% ifjhkkf"kr djuk gs] rks blds fy, 'OR REPLACE' fy[kk tkrk gsa ml MkVkcsl Ldhek dk uke] ftlesa iqad'ku fufezr djuk gsa bldk iz;ksx osdfyid gsa ;fn bls u fy[kk tk,] rks vkwjsdy orzeku Ldhek dks gh fmiqkwyv Ldhek ekurk gsa ;g fufezr fd;s tk jgs iqad'ku ds fy, iz;ksxdùkkz }kjk ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k dksbz uke gksrk gsa ;g dksbz Hkh,slk uke gks ldrk gs] ftls fy[krs le; PL/SQL osfj;scy ukeksa ls lacaf/r fu;eksa dk ikyu fd;k x;k gksa uke lnso gh,slk fy;k tkuk pkfg;s] tks iqad'ku ds fuekz.k dk mís'; Li"V djsa ;g iqad'ku dk iz;ksx djrs le; mlesa fn;s tkus okys isjkehvj dk uke gksrk gsa bl fodyi dk iz;ksx <Parameter_Name> dh osy;w ;wtj ls ysus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn iqad'ku }kjk fn;s x, ifj.kkeksa dks fjvuz djus ds fy;s isjkehvj <Parameter_Name> dk iz;ksx djuk gks] rks blds lkfk Out fodyi fy[kk tkrk gsa ;g fodyi crkrk gs fd <Parameter_Name> dk eku ;wtj ls fy;k tk,xk rfkk ifj.kke Hkh <Parameter_Name> }kjk gh fjvuz gksaxsa 217

218 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy <Data-Type> RETURN <Data_Type> IS/AS <Variable_Declaration> <Constant_Declaration> BEGIN EXCEPTION END ;g <Parameter-Name> dk MkVk&Vkbi gs] tks PL/SQL dk dksbz Hkh MkVk&Vkbi gks ldrk gsa ;g iqad'ku }kjk fjvuz dh tkus okyh osy;w dk MkVk Vkbi gksrk gsa pw fd] iqad'ku }kjk,d eku izr;kofrzr (Return) djuk vfuok;z gs] blfy;s RETURN dk iz;ksx djuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;gk <Data_Type>, PL/SQL dk dksbz Hkh MkVk&Vkbi gks ldrk gsa iqad'ku dh ifjhkk"kk dk izkjehk crkus ds fy;s IS rfkk AS esa ls fdlh dk Hkh iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa iqad'ku esa iz;ksx fd;s tk jgs lhkh osfj;scy bl Hkkx esa?kksf"kr fd;s tkrs gsaa iqad'ku esa iz;ksx fd;s tk jgs lhkh dkwulvuv bl Hkkx esa?kksf"kr fd;s tkrs gsaa ;g iqad'ku ds fø;kuo;u Hkkx ds izkjehk dk lwpd gksrk gsa iqad'ku ds fø;kuo;u ls lacaf/r dfku bl Hkkx esa fy[ks tkrs gs aa ;g iqad'ku ds dfkuksa ds fø;kuo;u ds nksjku mriuu vioknksa ds fu;a=k.k,oa O;oLFkkiu ds fy;s viokn fu;a=k.k dfku bl Hkkx esa fy[ks tkrs gsaa ;g iqad'ku dh lekfir dk lwpd gsa (d) iqad'ku dk fø;kuo;u (Executing a Function),d ckj ifjhkkf"kr gks tkus ij iqad'ku deikkby gksdj vkwjsdy batu dh eseksjh ea s lafpr gks tkrk gsa vc bls vko';drk ds vuqlkj fdruh ckj Hkh iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa iqad'ku dks dkwy (Call) djrs le; bles a vkx;w ZesUV~l ds :i es a eku Hksts tkrs gs aa pw fd] iqad'ku vfuok;z :i ls,d eku izr;kofrzr (Return) Hkh djrs gs a] vr% bl eku dks j[kus ds fy, lkeku;r%,d osfj;scy dk iz;ksx Hkh iqad'ku dks dkwy djrs le; fd;k tkrk gsa fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk iqad'ku dk fø;kuo;u le>k;k x;k gs % mnkgj.k % ;g PL/SQL iqad'ku,sdliksuasv dh?kkr fudkyrk gsa 218

219 mijksdr iqad'ku esa] Mypower iqad'ku dk uke gsa base rfkk exp IN eksm ds isjkehvj gsaa iqad'ku ckwmh esa vlfkk;h LVksjst ds fy, iz;ksx fd, x, eseksjh osfj;scy dh&omz 'AS' rfkk 'BEGIN' ds chp fmdys;j fd, x, gsaa b, e rfkk p fmdys;j fd, x, eseksjh osfj;scy gsaa ykbu 17 dk LVsVesaV nsf[k,a ;g return LVsVesaV gs] tks iqad'ku esa dsydqysv dh xbz osy;w fjvuz djrk gsa ykbu 9 ls 17 rd iqad'ku dh ckwmh gsa vki SELECT LVsVesaV esa iqad'ku ds dkwy dks nsf[k,] tks fueu gs % izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku 15.5 izkslhtj@iqad'ku dks fevkuk (Deleting Procedure/Function) ge tkurs gsa fd izkslhtj@iqad'ku PL/SQL dksm (Code) ds CykWd gksrs gsaa vr% bugsa lafpr djus ds fy;s eseksjh Lisl (Memory space) dh Hkh vko';drk gksrh gsa ;fn buds iz;ksx dk mís'; iw.kz gks x;k gks vfkok budh vko';drk lekir gks xbz gks] rks bugsa fevk nsuk pkfg,] rkfd buds }kjk iz;ksx dh tk jgh eseksjh dks eqdr (Free) fd;k tk ldsa izkslhtj@iqad'ku dks fevkus (Deletion) ds fy, 'DROP' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% (a) izkslhtj dks fevkuk (Deleting a Procedure) fdlh izkslhtj dks fevkus ds fy, "DROP" dfku dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % ;gk ] DROP PROCEDURE <Name_of_the_Procedure>; <Name_of_the_Procedure> ml izkslhtj dk uke gs] ftls fevkuk gsa mnkgj.k % Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- çkslhtj D;k gksrs gsa\ 2- iaqd'ku ds ykhk crkb,a 3- RETURN (Data type) D;k gksrk gs \ 219

220 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy (b) iqad'ku dks fevkuk (Deleting a function) fdlh iqad'ku dks fevkus ds fy;s 'DROP' dfku dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % DROP FUNCTION <Name_of_the_function>; ;gk ] <Name-of_the_function> mls iqad'ku dk uke gs] ftls fevkuk gsa mnkgj.k % lkjka'k (Summary) izksxzkfeax dks ljy cukus ds fy;s izksxzke ds fdlh fof'k"v dk;z vfkok izfø;k ls lacaf/r dfkuksa dks,d CykWd (Block) ds :i esa ifjhkkf"kr dj fn;k tkrk gsa blds i'pkr~ izksxzke esa tc Hkh bu dfkuksa dks fø;kfuor djus dh vko';drk gks] rks dsoy bl CykWd dk uke fy[k fn;k tkrk gsa,slk djus ij ml CykWd ds lhkh dfku fø;kfuor gks tkrs gsaa bl izdkj ds CykWd dks vkwjsdy esa ^izkslhtj* dgk tkrk gsa dqn fof'k"v dk;ks± dks iw.kz djus ds fy, Hkh CykWd cuk;s tk ldrs gsaa bl izdkj cuk;s x, ^CykWd* dks ^iqad'ku* (Function) dgk tkrk gsa fdlh izkslhtj dh gh rjg iqad'ku esa Hkh vkx;wzesuv~l Hksts tk ldrs gsaa izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku esa eq[; vurj dsoy ;g gs fd izfø;k iw.kz gks tkus ij iqad'ku }kjk vfuok;z :i ls dksbz eku (Value) izr;kofrzr (Return) Hkh fd;k tkrk gsa vfkkzr~ iqad'ku ls,d fjvuz osy;w izkir gksrh gs] tcfd izkslhtj ds }kjk dksbz eku izr;kofrzr fd;k tkuk osdfyid (Optional) gksrk gsa?kks"k.kkred Hkkx esa izkslhtj vfkok iqad'ku esa iz;ksx fd;s tkus okys osfj;scy] dkwulvuv] dlzj br;kfn dks?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gsa fø;kuo;u Hkkx esa fdlh izfø;k vfkok dk;z ls lacaf/r fø;kuo;u dfku (Executable Statements) fy[ks tkrs gsaa =kqfv;ksa dks fu;af=kr djus rfkk vioknksa ds vk/kj ij budk O;oLFkkiu djus ds fy;s vko ;d dfku viokn fu;a=k.k Hkkx esa fy[ks tkrs gsaa fdlh izkslhtj@iqad'ku dk iz;ksx MkVk dh lqj{kk dks c<+kus esa lgk;d gks ldrk gsa izkslhtj@iqad'ku dk iz;ksx djus ls leiw.kz MkVkcsl ds izn'kzu esa o`f¼ gksrh gs] D;ksafd usvodz ij Hksth rfkk izkir dh tkus okyh lwpukvksa dh ek=kk de gks tkus ls usvodz VªSfiQd?kV tkrk gsa 220 izkslhtj@iqad'ku esa eseksjh 'ks;j djus dh {kerk gksrh gs] vr% budk iz;ksx eseksjh dh cpr esa lgk;d gksrk gsa

221 dk iz;ksx djus ls fdlh dk;z ls lacaf/r dfkuksa dks,d ls vfèkd ckj fø;kfuor djus ds fy, izr;sd ckj mugsa fy[kus dh vko';drk ugha jg tkrha blls dksm fy[kus esa yxus okys le; dh cpr gksrh gsa lkfk gh izksxzke ds fø;kuo;u (Execution-Time) esa Hkh deh vkrh gsa bl izdkj de le; esa vf/d dk;z fd;k tk ldrk gs] ftlls mrikndrk c<rh gsa vkwjsdy batu esa lafpr fd;s tkrs gsaa vkwjsdy batu esa MkVk dh lqj{kk dks cuk, j[kus ds fy;s vusd lqj{kk mik; miyc/ gksrs gsa] ftlls MkVk dh v[k.mrk lqfuf'pr gks tkrh gsa PL/SQL es a fdlh izkslhtj dk fuekz.k djus ds fy, 'CREATE PROCEDURE...' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa PL/SQL esa fdlh iqad'ku dk fuekz.k djus ds fy, 'CREATE FUNCTION...' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsaa iqad'ku }kjk vfuok;z :i ls,d eku (value) fjvuz fd;k tkrk gsa vr% iqad'ku fuekz.k ds fluvsdl esa,d 'RETURN...' Hkkx Hkh gksrk gsa izkslhtj@iqad'ku dks fevkus (Deletion) ds fy, 'DROP' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. izksxzkfeax dks ljy cukus ds fy;s izksxzke ds fdlh fof'k"v dk;z vfkok izfø;k ls lacaf/r dfkuksa dks,d CykWd (Block) ds :i esa ifjhkkf"kr dj fn;k tkrk gsa blds i'pkr~ izksxzke esa tc Hkh bu dfkuksa dks fø;kfuor djus dh vko';drk gks] rks dsoy bl CykWd dk uke fy[k fn;k tkrk gsa,slk djus ij ml CykWd ds lhkh dfku fø;kfuor gks tkrs gsaa bl izdkj ds CykWd dks vkwjsdy esa ^izkslhtj* dgk tkrk gsa 2. fdlh PL/SQL izksxzke esa izkslhtj@iqad'ku dk iz;ksx djus ds vusd ykhk gsaa buesa ls dqn fueufyf[kr gsa % (a) lqj{kk (Security) (b) izn'kzu (Performance) (c) eseksjh vkoavu (Memory Allocation) (d) mrikndrk (Productivity) (e) v[k.mrk (Integrity) 3. ;g iqad'ku }kjk fjvuz dh tkus okyh osy;w dk MkVk Vkbi gksrk gsa pw fd] iqad'ku }kjk,d eku izr;kofrzr (Return) djuk vfuok;z gs] blfy;s RETURN dk iz;ksx djuk vko';d gksrk gsa ;gk <Data_Type>, PL/SQL dk dksbz Hkh MkVk&Vkbi gks ldrk gsa vh;kl (Exercise) 1. izkslhtj rfkk iqad'ku dh vo/kj.kk dks Li"V dhft;sa 2.,d izkslhtj vfkok iqad'ku fdu Hkkxksa ls feydj cuk gksrk gs\ 3. PL/SQL esa izkslhtj@iqad'ku dk iz;ksx djus ds D;k ykhk gsa\ 221

222 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 4. izkslhtj ds fuekz.k ds fluvsdl dh folrkj ls O;k[;k dhft;sa 5. izkslhtj ds fø;kuo;u dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 6. iqad'ku fuekz.k ds fluvsdl dh folrkj ls O;k[;k dhft;sa 7. iqad'ku ds fø;kuo;u dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;sa 8. dks fevkus dk fluvsdl D;k gs\ mfpr mnkgj.k fyf[k;sa 222

223 16 MkVkcsl fvªxlz (Database Triggers) MkVkcsl fvªxlz bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % fvªxlz dh vo/kj.kk fvªxj ds izdkj fvªxj dk fuekz.k fvªxj dk iz;ksx fvªxj dks fevkuk 16.1 vo/kj.kk (Concept) ge tkurs gsa fd ftu izfø;kvksa dks fdlh PL/SQL izksxzke esa fhkuu&fhkuu LFkkuksa ij iz;ksx djus vfkok,d ls vfèkd ckj nksgjkus dh vko';drk gks] mu izfø;kvksa ls lacaf/r dksm dks lkeku;r%,d CykWd esa lkewfgd :i ls j[kk tkrk gsa bl CykWd dks ^izkslhtj* (Procedure) dgrs gs aa ge viuh vko';drk ds vuqlkj izksxzke esa fdrus Hkh izkslhtj cuk ldrs gsaa izr;sd izkslhtj dks igpkuus ds fy, mls,d fof'k"v uke fn;k tkrk gs] ftls ^izkslhtj dk uke* (Procedure_Name) dgrs gsa izr;sd izkslhtj dksbz fof'k"v dk;z djus ds fy, cuk;k tkrk gsa vko';drk gksus ij ml dk;z vfkok izfø;k dks iw.kz djus ds fy, PL/SQL izksxzke eas izkslhtj dk uke fy[kdj mldk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa izkslhtjksa ds lanhkz esa,d egroiw.kz rf; ;g gs fd budk fuekz.k,oa iz;ksx lqli"v :i ls (Explicitly) izksxzkej }kjk gh fd;k tkrk gsa vfkkzr~ tc rd izksxzkej }kjk PL/SQL izksxzke esa fdlh LFkku ij izkslhtj dks cqyk;k (call) u tk,] rc rd izksxzke esa bldk iz;ksx ugha fd;k tk ldrka ijurq] izkslhtjksa ds foijhr vkwjsdy esa dksm dk,slk CykWd cukuk Hkh lahko gs] ftls vko';drk ds vuqlkj vkwjsdy batu }kjk Lor% gh (Implicitly) dkwy (Call) fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj ds dksm CykWd dks ^fvªxj* (Trigger) vfkok ^MkVkcsl fvªxj* (Database Trigger) dgrs gasa 223

224 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy MkVkcsl fvªxj Hkh PL/SQL dfkuksa dk,d lewg vfkok CykWd gksrk gsa bls iz;ksxdrkz (User) }kjk ifjhkkf"kr fdlh fof'k"v uke ds }kjk igpkuk tkrk gsa izr;sd fvªxj fdlh MkVkcsl ifjorzu dek.m (Database Manipulation Command) tsls INSERT, UPDATE vfkok DELETE ls lacaf/r gksrk gsa fvªxj dks ikfjhkkf"kr djrs le; blls lacaf/r dek.m rfkk Vscy dk uke br;kfn dk o.kzu fd;k tkrk gsa fvªxj dks ifjhkkf"kr djus dk dksm DykbaV dei;wvj ij SQL * PLUS dh lgk;rk ls fy[kk tkrk gs rfkk bls lozj ij vkwjsdy batu ds fllve Vscy (System Table) esa lafpr fd;k tkrk gsa fvªxj dks fdlh fof'k"v Vscy ls lacaf/r ftl dek.m (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) ds fy, ifjhkkf"kr fd;k x;k gs] ml Vscy ij og dek.m fø;kfuor djus ij vkwjsdy batu Lor% gh bl fvªxj dks dkwy dj ysrk gsa bls iz;ksxdrkz (User) }kjk dkwy ugha fd;k tkrka mijksdr fooj.k ls ;g Li"V gs fd izr;sd fvªxj esa eq[;r% nks Hkkx gksrs gs% (a) MkVkcsl ls lacaf/r,d?kvuk (Event) (b) mijksdr?kvuk (Event) ds mriuu gksus ij fø;kfuor fd;k tkus okyk PL/SQL CykWdA bl vè;k; esa MkVkcsl fvªxj ds fuekz.k] iz;ksx,oa izdkjksa br;kfn ds fo"k; esa folrkj ls ppkz dh xbz gsa 16.2 fvªxj ds mi;ksx (Use Of Trigger) fvªxj] fdlh MkVkcsl ds,d Vscy ij dk;z djrs le; blesa lafpr MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Interrity) rfkk fo'oluh;rk (Reliability) dks cuk, j[kus dk lcls izk;ksfxd lk/u gsa vkwjsdy esa fvªxj dh Hkwfedk vr;ar egroiw.kz gksrh gsa blds dqn mi;ksx fueufyf[kr gsa % 1. MkVkcsl dh lqj{kk dks c<+kuka 2. iz;ksxdrkz dks laiw.kz fu;a=k.k iznku fd, fcuk dfkuksa dks fø;kfuor djuka 3. MkVk dh os/rk (Validity) dks tk pus ds fy, ra=k dk fuekz.ka 4. fdlh rkfydk (Table) ds iz;ksx ls lacaf/r ykwx iqkby dk fuekz.ka 5. Vscy ds fdlh,d LraHk (Column) dh lgk;rk ls fdlh vu; LraHk (Column) dk eku Kkr djuka 6.,d Vscy esa dksbz eku Mkys tkus (Insertion), v ru fd, tkus (Updation) vfkok gvk, tkus (Deletion) ij blls tqm+h lhkh rkfydkvksa (Table) esa ifjorzu djuka 224 fvªxj ds fuekz.k dh izfø;k] ifjhkk"kk rfkk fluvsdl dks le>us ls iwoz ge blds fofhkuu Hkkxksa (Parts) rfkk fvªxj ds izdkjksa (Types) dks tkusaxsa rkfd buds fuekz.k dh izfø;k,oa fluvsdl dks le>uk vf/d ljy gks tk,a 16.3 MkVkcsl fvªxj ds Hkkx (Parts of a Database Trigger) fdlh Hkh MkVkcsl fvªxj esa eq[;r% rhu Hkkx gksrs gasa ;s fueufyf[kr gas % (a) fvªxj dks izkjehk djus okyh?kvuk vfkok dfku (Trigger event or action)a (b) fvªxj ls lac¼ lqj{kkred fuczu/ (Restrictions on Trigger)A (c) fvªxj ls lacaf/r Ñfr (Triggering Action)A bu lhkh Hkkxksa dk laf{kir fooj.k bl izdkj gs % (a) fvªxj dks izkjehk djus okyh?kvuk vfkok dfku : (Trigger event or action) izr;sd fvªxj fdlh Vscy ds MkVk ij fd, tkus okys ifjorzuks a (Insertion, Updation, Deletion) ds fy, ifjhkkf"kr gksrk gsa tc Hkh fvªxj ij ifjhkkf"kr?kvuk (Event) ls lacaf/r dfku (Statement) dk

225 iz;ksx PL/SQL izksxzke es a fd;k tkrk gs] rks vkwjsdy batu Lor% gh mfpr fvªxj dks cqykrk gsa vfkkzr fvªxj dks izkjehk djus ds fy, dksbz?kvuk vfkok dfku mriuu gksuk vko';d gsa (b) fvªxj ls lac¼ lqj{kkred fuczu/ : (Restrictions on Trigger) ftl izdkj fvªxj dks izkjahk djus ds fy, fdlh?kvuk vfkok dfku dk gksuk vko';d gs] mlh izdkj fvªxj dk iz;ksx djrs le; MkVk dh lqj{kk] v[k.mrk rfkk fo'oluh;rk (Security, Integrity and Reliability) dks cuk, j[kuk Hkh vko';d gksrk gsa blds fy, fvªxj ij dqn fuczu/ksa (Restrictions) dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa ;g dk;z fvªxj ls lacaf/r SQL dfkuksa ij dksbz 'krz (Condition) j[kdj fd;k tk ldrk gsa tc Hkh fvªxj ls lacaf/r?kvuk vfkok dfku PL/SQL izksxzke esa mriuu gksrs gsa] rc fvªxj dks izkjehk djus ls iwoz bl 'krz dh tk p dh tkrh gsa ;fn bldk ifj.kke lr; (True) gks] dsoy rhkh fvªxj dks fø;kfuor fd;k tkrk gsa ;g 'krz leiw.kz SQL dfku ds fy,,d lkfk vfkok bl dfku ds }kjk izhkkfor gksus okyh izr;sd iafdr (Row) ds fy, yxkbz tk ldrh gsa bldh ppkz vè;k; esa vkxs ^fvªxj ds izdkj (Types of Trigger)' [k.m esa dh xbz gsa ;gk dsoy bruk le>uk i;kzir gs fd MkVk dh lqj{kk] v[k.mrk,oa fo'oluh;rk dks cuk, j[kus ds fy, fvªxj ij dksbz 'krz (Condition) Hkh yxkbz tk ldrh gsa fvªxj ls lacaf/r?kvuk vfkok dfku dk iz;ksx fd, tkus ij igys bl damh'ku dh tk p dh tkrh gs rfkk bldk ifj.kke lr; izkir gksus ij gh fvªxj dks izkjahk fd;k tkrk gsa (c) fvªxj ls lacaf/r Ñfr : (Triggering Action) fvªxj ds fuekz.k dk eq[; mn~ns'; bl Hkkx esa crk;k tkrk gsa fvªxj ls lacf/r?kvuk vfkok dfku ds mriuu gksus rfkk fvªxj fuczu/ dh 'krz lr; gksus dh flfkfr esa fvªxj dks izkjehk djds tks dk;z djuk gs] og bl Hkkx esa Li"V fd;k tkrk gsa bl Hkkx esa fvªxj }kjk dh tkus okyh Ñfr (Action) ls lacaf/r dfku gksrs gsaa bugsa,d CykWd ds :i esa fy[kk tkrk gsa fvªxj izkjehk gksus ij dfkuksa dk ;g CykWd fø;kfuor gksrk gsa vko';drk ds vuqlkj,d fvªxj esa dksbz vu; fvªxj vfkok ogh fvªxj iqu% cqyk;k Hkh tk ldrk gsa Lo;a dks vfkok fdlh vu; fvªxj dks,d fvªxj esa cqykus dh ;g izfø;k Øeizikr (Cascading) dgykrh gsa 16.4 fvªxj ds izdkj (Types of Trigger) ge tkurs gs a fd fdlh fvªxj dks izkjehk djus ds fy, fdlh?kvuk vfkok dfku dk gksuk vko';d gksrk gsa dfku vfkok?kvuk ds mriuu gksus ij damh'ku dh tk p dh tkrh gs,oa bldk ifj.kke ;fn lr; (True) gks] rks fvªxj dks izkjahk fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh Vscy ij iz;ksx fd, tk jgs fvªxj laca/h dfku (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) ds }kjk Vscy dh,d ls vf/d iafdr;ks a dk izhkkfor gksuk Hkh lahko gsa fvªxj dks ifjhkkf"kr djrs le; ge ;g fu/kzfjr dj ldrs gs fd dfku ds }kjk izhkkfor gksus okyh izr;sd iafdr ds fy, fvªxj dks izr;sd ckj cqykuk gs vfkok laiw.kz dfku ds fy, fvªxj dks dscy,d gh ckj cqykuk gsa bl vk/kj ij fvªxj fueufyf[kr nks Jsf.k;ks a es a oxhzñr fd, tk ldrs gs a% MkVkcsl fvªxlz (a) iafdr fvªxj (Row Trigger) (b) dfku fvªxj (Statement Trigger) budk laf{kir fooj.k bl izdkj gs% (a) iafdr fvªxj : (Row Trigger) ;fn fvªxj laca/h dfku (Triggering Statement) tsls % INSERT, UPDATE vfkok DELETE ds }kjk izhkkfor gksus okyh iafdr;ksa dh la[;k,d ls vf/d gs rfkk ge izr;sd iafdr ds fy, fvªxj dks izr;sd ckj cqykuk pkgrs gsa] rks blds fy, iafdr fvªxj (Row Trigger) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa mnkgj.kkfkz ;fn fdlh DELETE dfku ds }kjk Vscy dh dqn iafdr;ksa dks fevk;k tk jgk gs rfkk bl dfku ij,d iafdr fvªxj (Row Trigger) ifjhkkf"kr gs] rks,slh flfkfr esa DELETE dfku }kjk fevkbz tkus okyh izr;sd iafdr ds fy, fvªxj dks,d ckj cqyk;k tk,xka ;gk ;g ckr Hkh è;ku nsus ;ksx; gs] fd ;fn fvªxj 225

226 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 226 laca/h dfku ds }kjk dksbz Hkh iafdr izhkkfor ugha gks jgh gs] rks bl flfkfr esa fvªxj,d ckj Hkh dkwy (Call) ugha gksxka (b) dfku fvªxj : (Statement Trigger) ;fn fvªxj laca/h fdlh dfku ds mriuu gksus ij fvªxj dks bl laiw.kz dfku ds fy, dsoy,d ckj gh cqykuk gks] rks ;g dk;z dfku fvªxj (Statement Trigger) ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bl flfkfr esa fvªxj dk iz;ksx izhkkfor gksus okyh iafdr;ksa dh la[;k ij fuhkzj ugha gksrka vfkkzr~ dfku ds }kjk izhkkfor gksus okyh iafdr;ksa dh la[;k pkgs ftruh Hkh gks] ijarq fvªxj laiw.kz dfku ds fy, dsoy,d ckj gh cqyk;k tkrk gsa mnkgj.kkfkz] ;fn fdlh Vscy ij UPDATE dfku ds }kjk izhkkfor gks jgh iafdr;ksa dh la[;k 10 gs rfkk bl ij,d dfku fvªxj ifjhkkf"kr gs] rks,slh flfkfr esa laiw.kz UPDATE dfku ds fy, ;g fvªxj dsoy,d ckj gh cqyk;k tk,xk] 10 ckj ughaa blh izdkj ;g Hkh è;ku j[kusa ;ksx; ckr gs fd ;fn fvªxj laca/h dfku ds }kjk,d Hkh iafdr izhkkfor ugha gks jgh gks] rc Hkh dfku fvªxj,d ckj cqyk;k tkrk gsa fdlh laiw.kz dfku ds fy, vfkok blds }kjk izhkkfor gksus okyh izr;sd iafdr ds fy, iz;qdr fvªxj dk fu/kzj.k djus dk dk;z dfku fvªxj,oa iafdr fvªxj ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa ijarq] fvªxj dk iz;ksx djrs le; ;g Li"V djuk Hkh vko';d gs fd fvªxj dks lacaf/r dfku vfkok iafdr ds fø;kuo;u ls iwoz cqykuk gs vfkok fø;kuo;u ds i'pkr~ cqykuk gsa fvªxj dks cqyk, tkus dk ;g le; fu/kzfjr djus ds fy, fueufyf[kr nks izdkj ds fvªxj miyc/ gksrs gsa% (c) (d) iwoz fvªxj (Before Trigger) i'pkr fvªxj (After Trigger) ;s nksuksa gh fvªxj izr;sd iafdr (Row) vfkok laiw.kz dfku (Statement) ds lkfk iz;ksx fd, tk ldrs gsaa budk laf{kir fooj.k bl izdkj gs % (c) iwoz fvªxj : (Before Trigger) ;fn Vscy ds MkVk esa ifjorzu ls lacaf/r dfku ds fø;kuo;u ls iwoz blls lacaf/r fvªxj dks fø;kfuor djuk gks] rks bl dk;z ds fy, iwoz fvªxj (Before Trigger) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk iz;ksx lkeku;r% ml flfkfr esa gksrk gs] tc fdlh dfku ds }kjk iafdr;ksa ds MkVk dks ifjofrzr djus ls iwoz ;g fu/kzfjr djuk gks fd MkVk esa ifjorzu dh vuqefr nh tk, ;k ughaa (d) i'pkr fvªxj : (After Trigger) ;fn Vscy ds MkVk esa ifjorzu ls lacaf/r dfku dk fø;kuo;u iw.kz gks tkus ds i'pkr~ blls lacaf/r fvªxj dks fø;kfuor djuk gks] rks bl dk;z ds fy, i'pkr~ fvªxj dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bl fvªxj dk iz;ksx ml flfkfr esa gksrk gs] tc dfku ds }kjk MkVk esa ifjorzu gks tkus ij fvªxj dks fø;kfuor djuk gksa lkfk gh] ;fn MkVk esa ifjorzu djus ls iwoz fd;s tkus okys dk;ks± ds fy, iwoz fvªxj (Before Trigger) dk iz;ksx fd;k tk pqdk gs] rks mlh dfku vfkok iafdr ij dksbz vu; izfø;k iw.kz djus ds fy, i'pkr fvªxj (After Trigger) dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa bl izdkj fvªxj pkj izdkj ds gksrs gas% iafdr fvªxj] dfku fvªxj] iwoz fvªxj rfkk i'pkr fvªxja vko';drk ds vuqlkj buesa ls fdlh dk Hkh iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa lkfk gh] ge iwoz,oa i'pkr~ fvªxj dks iafdr,oa dfku fvªxj ds lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) djds Hkh iz;ksx dj ldrs gsaa tsls% BEFORE ROW TRIGGER, AFTER ROW TRIGGER, BEFORE STATEMENT TRIGGER, AFTER STATEMENT TRIGGER bl izdkj buds pkj la;kstu (Combination) cuk, tk ldrs gasa izr;sd la;ksftr fvªxj mu nksuksa fvªxjksa dh dk;z&in~/fr dk ikyu djrk gs] ftuds la;kstu ls mldk fuekz.k gqvk gsa mnkgj.kkfkz ;fn Before Row Trigger dk iz;ksx fd;k tk jgk gs] rks bl flfkfr esa fdlh dfku }kjk izhkkfor gks jgh izr;sd iafdr esa ifjorzu ls igys fvªxj dks fø;kfuor fd;k tk,xka D;ksfd ;gk fvªxj] iwoz,oa iafdr fvªxj dk la;kstu gsa blh izdkj ;fn After Statement Trigger dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gks] rks laiw.kz dfku ds

227 fø;kfuor gks tkus ds i'pkr~ fvªxj dks fø;kfuor fd;k tk,xk D;ksfd After Statement Trigger olrqr% i'pkr~ (After),oa dfku (Statement) fvªxjkas dk la;kstu gsa bl izdkj vko';drk ds vuqlkj mijksdr esa ls fdlh Hkh fvªxj vfkok buds fdlh Hkh la;kstu dk iz;ksx PL/SQL izksxzke esa fd;k tk ldrk gsa 16.5 MkVkcsl fvªxj dk fofu;ksx djuk (Applying Database Triggers) MkVkcsl fvªxlz PL/SQL izksxzke esa fdlh MkVkcsl fvªxj dk fofu;ksx djus (Applying) ls iwoz bls fufezr (Create),oa ifjhkkf"kr (Define) djuk vfuok;z gksrk gsa ;g dk;z 'Create Trigger' dfku ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa 'Create Trigger' dfku dh lgk;rk ls fdlh fvªxj ds fuekz.k dk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER [schema.]<name_of_the_trigger> {BEFORE AFTER} {DELETE INSERT UPDATE [of <column1>[<column2>...]]} ON [schema.] {<name_of_table> <name_of_view>} [REFERENGING {OLD AS <old_name>, NEW AS <new_name>}] [FOR EACH ROW [WHEN<condition>]] DECLARE <Declaration_of_Variables>; <Declaration_of_constants>; BEGIN... /* PL/SQL program Statements */ EXCEPTION... /* PL/SQL Exception Statements */ END; mijksdr fluvsdl esa iz;qdr ^dh&omz* rfkk isjkehvj,oa mudk o.kzu fueufyf[kr gs% CREATE : bldk iz;ksx,d u, fvªxj dks fufezr (Create) djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa OR REPLACE : ;fn igys ls cus gq, fdlh fvªxj dh ifjhkk"kk esa ifjorzu djuk gks] rks blds fy, CREATE ds ckn 'OR REPLACE' fy[kk tkrk gsa 'OR REPLACE' dk iz;ksx djus ij fvªxj dh iqjkuh ifjhkk"kk dks ubz ifjhkk"kk }kjk ifjofrzr dj fn;k tkrk gsa Schema : blds LFkku ij ml MkVkcsl Ldhek (Database Schema) dk uke fy[kk tkrk gs] ftlesa fvªxj dk fuekz.k djuk gsa ;fn Ldhek dk uke u fn;k tk,] rks vkwjsdy batu }kjk ;wtj ds fmiqkwyv Ldhek esa gh fvªxj fufezr fd;k tkrk gsa <name_of_the_trigger> : ;g fufezr fd, tk jgs fvªxj ds fy, iz;ksxdrkz }kjk ifjhkkf"kr dksbz Hkh uke gks ldrk gsa fvªxj dk uke nsrs le; mu fu;eksa dk è;ku j[kuk pkfg,] ftudk ikyu fdlh osfj;scy dk uke nsrs le; fd;k tkrk gsa BEFORE : blds }kjk ;g crk;k tkrk gs fd fvªxj laca/h dfku (Trigger Statement) ds fø;kuo;u ls iwoz (Before) vkwjsdy batu }kjk fvªxj dks fø;kfuor fd;k tk,xka 227

228 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy AFTER : blds }kjk ;g Li"V fd;k tkrk gs fd fvªxj dk fø;kuo;u fvªxj laca/h dfku (Trigger Statement) ds fø;kuo;u ds i'pkr (After) gksxka DELETE : ;fn fufezr fd, tk jgs fvªxj dks DELETE dfku ij iz;ksx djuk gs] rks blds fy, DELETE fy[kk tkrk gsa vc izr;sd DELETE dfku ds vkus ij fvªxj fø;kfuor gksxka INSERT : bldk iz;ksx INSERT dfku ij fvªxj yxkus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa UPDATE : bldk iz;ksx UPDATE dfku ij fvªxj yxkus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn dsoy fdlh,d vfkok dqn fof'k"v dkwyel v ru (UPDATE) fd, tkus ij gh fvªxj dks fø;kfuor djuk gks] rks blds fy, UPDATE ds ckn 'OF' ds lkfk dkwye uke fn, tkrs gasa,slk djus ij fvªxj dsoy mlh flfkfr esa fø;kfuor gksxk] tc 'OF' ds lkfk fn, x, fdlh dkwye dks UPDATE dfku }kjk v ru fd;k tk jgk gksa fdlh vu; dkwye dk eku ifjofrzr djus ij fvªxj fø;kfuor ugha gksxka ijarq] ;fn 'OF' dk iz;ksx ugha fd;k x;k gs] rks izr;sd ckj UPDATE dfku vkus ij fvªxj dks Hkh cqyk;k tk,xka ON : blds }kjk ml Ldhek rfkk Vscy dk uke crk;k tkrk gs] ftl ij fvªxj dk iz;ksx fd;k tk jgk gsa REFERENCING : tc fdlh iafdr ds MkVk esa ifjorzu fd;k tk jgk gks] rks bl flfkfr esa MkVk ds iqjkus eku (OLD VALUE) rfkk u, eku (NEW VALUE) ds chp ijlij laca/ dks Li"V djus ds fy, REFERENCING dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa buds MhiQkWYV uke OLD rfkk NEW gksrs gsa ;fn iz;ksxdrkz buds fy, fdlh vu; uke dk iz;ksx djuk pkgs] rks ;g dk;z REFERENCING }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa FOR EACH ROW : bldk iz;ksx iafdr fvªxj (Row Trigger) ifjhkkf"kr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn bls u fy[kk x;k gks] rks MhiQkWYV :i ls (By Default) fvªxj,d dfku fvªxj (Statement Trigger) cu tkrk gsa WHEN : blds }kjk fvªxj fuczu/ (Trigger Restrictions) fn, tk ldrs gsa WHEN ds lkfk,d SQL dfku fy[kdj dksbz damh'ku nh tkrh gsa fvªxj dks fø;kfuor djus ds fy, ;g damh'ku lr; gksuk vko';d gksrk gsa bl damh'ku esa ijlij laca/ksa ds uke gksuk vfuok;z gsa ijarq] blesa dksbz Dosjh ugha nh tk ldrha WHEN dk iz;ksx dsoy iafdr fvªxj ds fy, gh fd;k tk ldrk gsa DECLARE : fvªxj ds fø;kuo;u ds fy, vko';d lhkh osfj;scy rfkk dkwulvuv bl Hkkx esa?kksf"kr fd, tkrs gsa BEGIN : fvªxj dh Ñfr (action) ls lacaf/r fø;kuo;u dfku bl Hkkx esa fy[ks tkrs gsa ;g è;ku j[kuk vko';d gs] fd ;gk COMMIT, ROLLBACK rfkk SAVEPOINT dk iz;ksx ugha fd;k tk ldrka EXCEPTION : fvªxj fø;kuo;u ds nksjku mriuu vioknksa (Exceptions) ds O;oLFkkiu ls lacaf/ r dfku bl Hkkx esa fy[ks tkrs gasa END : ;g fvªxj ifjhkk"kk ds vur dks lwfpr djrk gsa mijksdr fluvsdl esa pksdksj dks"bdksa (Brackets) ds chp fy[ks x, lhkh 'kcnksa dk iz;ksx osdfyid gsa izksxzke dh vko';drk ds vk/kj ij bugsa fy[kk vfkok NksM+k tk ldrk gsa 'Create Trigger' dfku ds }kjk liqyrkiwozd fvªxj dk fuekz.k gks tkus ij ;g fvªxj Lor% gh lacaf/ r Vscy ij fofu;ksfxr (Apply) gks tkrk gsa fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk fvªxj ds fuekz.k,oa ifjhkk"kk dks vf/d Li"V fd;k x;k gs% 228

229 MkVkcsl fvªxlz 16.6 fvªxj dks djuk (Enabling/Disabling a Trigger) izksxzke esa tc fdlh fvªxj dks fufezr fd;k tkrk gs] rks fmiqkwyv :i ls ;g Lor gh lfø; (Enable/ Active) gks tkrk gsa ; fi bldk fø;kuo;u dsoy fvªxj laca/h?kvuk vfkok dfku (Triggering Event or Statement) ds mriuu gksus ij gh gksrk gs] rfkkfi fvªxj lnso gh lfø; jgrk gsa ;fn fdlh fof'k"v fvªxj dks fuf"ø; (Disabla/Inactive) djuk gks] rks blds fy, 'ALTER TRIGGER' dfku dk dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa fuf"ø; fd, x, fdlh fvªxj dks iqu% lfø; djus dk dk;z Hkh blh dfku ds }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % ALTER TRIGGER <name_of_the_trigger>{disable Enable}; mijksdr dfku esa] <name_of_the_trigger> : ml fvªxj dk uke gs] ftls lfø; vfkok fuf"ø; djuk gsa DISABLE : bl fodyi dk iz;ksx fvªxj dks fuf"ø; djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa ENABLE : bl fodyi dk iz;ksx fuf"ø; fd;s x, fdlh fvªxj dks lfø; djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa fvªxj dks fuf"ø; rfkk lfø; djus dh izfø;k dks fueu mnkgj.kksa ds }kjk Li"V fd;k tkrk gsa mnkgj.k % ;fn TR_MARKS uked fvªxj dks fuf"ø; djuk gs] rks blds fy, dfku bl izdkj fy[kk tk,xk % vc ;g fvªxj fuf"ø; gks x;k gsa bls iqu% lfø; djus ds fy, 'ALTER TRIGGER' dfku eas fvªxj uke ds lkfk ENABLE fodyi dk iz;ksx fd;k tk,xka bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k esa le>k;k x;k gs% Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- fvªxj D;k gksrk gs\ 2- iafùkq fvªxj D;k gksrs gs a\ 3- fvªxj dks fuf"ø; dsls djrs gsa \ 229

230 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % mijksdr mnkgj.k es fuf"ø; fd, x, fvªxj dks iqu% lfø; djus dk dk;z bl izdkj fd;k tk ldrk gsa fdlh Vscy ij,d ls vf/d fvªxj Hkh iz;ksx fd;s tk ldrs gsaa ;fn ;s lhkh fvªxj,d lkfk lfø; vfkok fuf"ø; djus gksa] rks ;g dk;z 'ALTER TABLE' dfku ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% ALTER TABLE <name_of_the_table> {Disable Enable} ALL TRIGGERS; mijksdr fluvsdl esa] <name_of_the_table> : ml Vscy dk uke gs] ftlds lhkh fvªxj lfø; vfkok fuf"ø; djuk gsa DISABLE : bldk iz;ksx lhkh fvªxj,d lkfk fuf"ø; djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa ENABLE : bldk iz;ksx djus ij lhkh fvªxj,d lkfk lfø; gks tkrs gsa fdlh Vscy ds lhkh fvªxj,d lkfk fuf"ø; rfkk iqu% lfø; djus dh izfø;k fueufyf[kr mnkgj.kksa ds }kjk le>kbz xbz gs% mnkgj.k % ;fn gesa 'STUDENTS' uked Vscy ds lhkh fvªxj fuf"ø; djuk gs] rks ;g dk;z fueufyf[kr dfku ds }kjk fd;k tk,xk% mnkgj.k % fy[kk tk,xk blh izdkj lhkh fvªxj iqu% lfø; djus ds fy, 'ALTER TABLE' dfku dks bl izdkj 230

231 16.7 fvªxj dks fevkuk (Deletion of Trigger) MkVkcsl fvªxlz ;fn fvªxj dh vko';drk u gks] rks mls fevk nsuk pkfg, rkfd fvªxj ds lkfk iz;ksx dh xbz eseksjh vu; dk;ksz ds fy, miyc/ gks ldsa fvªxj dks eseksjh ls fevkus ds fy, 'DROP TRIGGER' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs% DROP TRIGGER <name_of_the_trigger> bls fueufyf[kr mnkgj.k ds }kjk le>k;k x;k gs% mnkgj.k % ;fn TR_Marks uked,d fvªxj dks fevkuk gks] rks blds fy, fueefyf[kr dfku dk iz;ksx gksxk% lkjka'k (Summary) vkwjsdy esa dksm dk,slk CykWd cukuk Hkh lahko gs] ftls vko';drk ds vuqlkj vkwjsdy batu }kjk Lor% gh (Implicitly) dkwy (Call) fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj ds dksm CykWd dks ^fvªxj* (Trigger) vfkok ^MkVkcsl fvªxj* (Database Trigger) dgrs gasa fvªxj] fdlh MkVkcsl ds,d Vscy ij dk;z djrs le; blesa lafpr MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Interrity) rfkk fo'oluh;rk (Reliability) dks cuk, j[kus dk lcls izk;ksfxd lk/u gsa fvªxj dks izkjehk djus ds fy, dksbz?kvuk vfkok dfku mriuu gksuk vko';d gsa MkVk dh lqj{kk] v[k.mrk,oa fo'oluh;rk dks cuk, j[kus ds fy, fvªxj ij dksbz 'krz (Condition) Hkh yxkbz tk ldrh gsa fvªxj ls lacaf/r?kvuk vfkok dfku dk iz;ksx fd, tkus ij igys bl damh'ku dh tk p dh tkrh gs rfkk bldk ifj.kke lr; izkir gksus ij gh fvªxj dks izkjahk fd;k tkrk gsa vko';drk ds vuqlkj,d fvªxj esa dksbz vu; fvªxj vfkok ogh fvªxj iqu% cqyk;k Hkh tk ldrk gsa Lo;a dks vfkok fdlh vu; fvªxj dks,d fvªxj esa cqykus dh ;g izfø;k Øeizikr (Cascading) dgykrh gsa fvªxj pkj izdkj ds gksrs gas% iafdr fvªxj] dfku fvªxj] iwoz fvªxj rfkk i'pkr fvªxja vko';drk ds vuqlkj buesa ls fdlh dk Hkh iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsa lkfk gh] ge iwoz,oa i'pkr~ fvªxj dks iafdr,oa dfku fvªxj ds lkfk la;ksftr (Combine) djds Hkh iz;ksx dj ldrs gs aa tsls% BEFORE ROW TRIGGER, AFTER ROW TRIGGER, BEFORE STATEMENT TRIGGER, AFTER STATEMENT TRIGGER bl izdkj buds pkj la;kstu (Combination) cuk, tk ldrs gasa izr;sd la;ksftr fvªxj mu nksuksa fvªxjksa dh dk;z&in~/fr dk ikyu djrk gs] ftuds la;kstu ls mldk fuekz.k gqvk gsa PL/SQL izksxzke esa fdlh MkVkcsl fvªxj dk fofu;ksx djus (Applying) ls iwoz bls fufezr (Create),oa ifjhkkf"kr (Define) djuk vfuok;z gksrk gsa ;g dk;z 'Create Trigger' dfku ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa 231

232 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy ;fn fdlh fof'k"v fvªxj dks fuf"ø; (Disabla/Inactive) djuk gks] rks blds fy, 'ALTER TRIGGER' dfku dk dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa fuf"ø; fd, x, fdlh fvªxj dks iqu% lfø; djus dk dk;z Hkh blh dfku ds }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gsa fvªxj dks eseksjh ls fevkus ds fy, 'DROP TRIGGER' dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. vkwjsdy esa dksm dk,slk CykWd cukuk Hkh lahko gs] ftls vko';drk ds vuqlkj vkwjsdy batu }kjk Lor% gh (Implicitly) dkwy (Call) fd;k tkrk gsa bl izdkj ds dksm CykWd dks ^fvªxj* (Trigger) vfkok ^MkVkcsl fvªxj* (Database Trigger) dgrs gasa fvªxj] fdlh MkVkcsl ds,d Vscy ij dk;z djrs le; blesa lafpr MkVk dh v[k.mrk (Interrity) rfkk fo'oluh;rk (Reliability) dks cuk, j[kus dk lcls izk;ksfxd lk/u gsa 2. ;fn fvªxj laca/h dfku (Triggering Statement) tsls % INSERT, UPDATE vfkok DE- LETE ds }kjk izhkkfor gksus okyh iafdr;ksa dh la[;k,d ls vf/d gs rfkk ge izr;sd iafdr ds fy, fvªxj dks izr;sd ckj cqykuk pkgrs gsa] rks blds fy, iafdr fvªxj (Row Trigger) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 3. izksxzke esa tc fdlh fvªxj dks fufezr fd;k tkrk gs] rks fmiqkwyv :i ls ;g Lor gh lfø; (Enable/Active) gks tkrk gsa ; fi bldk fø;kuo;u dsoy fvªxj laca/h?kvuk vfkok dfku (Triggering Event or Statement) ds mriuu gksus ij gh gksrk gs] rfkkfi fvªxj lnso gh lfø; jgrk gsa ;fn fdlh fof'k"v fvªxj dks fuf"ø; (Disabla/Inactive) djuk gks] rks blds fy, 'ALTER TRIGGER' dfku dk dfku dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa fuf"ø; fd, x, fdlh fvªxj dks iqu% lfø; djus dk dk;z Hkh blh dfku ds }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gsa bldk fluvsdl fueufyf[kr gs % ALTER TRIGGER <name_of_the_trigger>{disable Enable}; vh;kl (Exercise) 1. MkVkcsl fvªxj ls vki D;k le>rs gsa\ 2. fvªxj fdrus izdkj ds gksrs gsa\ 3. izkslhtj rfkk fvªxj ds chp varj Li"V dhft;sa 4. MkVkcsl fvªxj dh D;k vko';drk gksrh gs\ 5. fvªxj ds fofhkuu Hkkx (Parts) dksu&dksu ls gsa\ 6. fvªxj ds fuekz.k ds fluvsdl dks folrkj ls le>kb;s\ 7. fdlh fvªxj dks lfø; rfkk fuf"ø; (Enable/Disable) djus dh izfø;k dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;s 8. fdlh Vscy ij iz;qdr lhkh fvªxlz dks,d lkfk lfø;@fufø; djus ds fy, fdl dek.m dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs\ mfpr mnkgj.k nhft;sa 232

233 17 vkwjsdy MkVkcsl iz'kkld (Oracle Database Administrator) vkwjsdy MkVkcsl iz'kkld bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % vkwjsdy MkVkcsl iz'kkld izdkj vkwjsdy,uvjizkbt izca/d MkVkcsl iz'kkld ds dk;z gkmzos;j dk ewy;kdau lkwývos;j bulvkwy djuk MkVkcsl ;kstuk cukuk MkVkcsl fuekz.k MkVkcsl csdvi ysuk iz;ksdrk ukekadu iz'kkld dh lqj{kk vksj vf/dkj iz'kkld dk izek.khdj.k xqir 'kcn iqkby dk fuekz.k iqkby esa u, iz;ksdrk tksm+uk 17.1 vkwjsdy MkVkcsl iz'kklu (Oracle Database Administrator) bl vè;k; esa,d MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj (DBA) ds nkf;roksa dk o.kzu fd;k x;k gs] tks vkwjsdy MkVkcsl lozj dk lapkyu djrk gsa 17.2 vkwjsdy iz'kkldksa@iz;ksdrkvksa ds izdkj (Types of Oracle Administrators/Users) fdlh lkbv ij iz;ksdrkvksa ds izdkj rfkk mudh Hkwfedk,oa nkf;ro vyx&vyx gks ldrs gsaa,d NksVh lkbv ij lkeku;r%,d gh MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj gksrk gs] tks,iyhds'ku MsoyilZ,oa iz;ksdrkvksa gsrq MkVkcsl dk lapkyu djrk gsa,d cgqr cm+s lkbv ds fy, ;g vko';d gks ldrk gs] fd,d MkVkcl,MfefuLVªsVj ds nkf;roksa dks dbz yksxksa esa ck V fn;k tk;sa 233

234 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVlZ (Database Administrators) izr;sd MkVkcsl esa bls lapkfyr djus gsrq de ls de,d MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj dh vko';drk im+rh gsa pw fd,d vkwjsdy MkVkcsl fllve cgqr fo'kky gks ldrk gs,oa mldk iz;ksx djus okys iz;ksdrk dbz gks ldrs gsaa vr% ;g dk;z izk;%,d O;fDr ds }kjk leiuu ugha fd;k tk ldrk gsa,slh flfkfr;ksa esa DBA dk,d lewg gksrk gs] tks nkf;roksa dks vkil esa ck V ysrs gsaa MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj ds nkf;roksa ds vurxzr fueu dk;z vkrs gsaa vkwjsdy lozj,oa,iyhds'ku VwYl dks balvkwy djuk,oa mugsa vixzsm (upgrade) djuka fllve LVksjst dks vyksdsv djuk,oa MkVkcsl fllve gsrq Hkfo"; dh LVksjst vko';drkvksa dh ;kstuk cukuka,iyhds'ku MsoyilZ }kjk,d,iyhds'ku dk fmtkbu rs;kj dj ysus ds ckn MkVkcsl LVksjst ds izkfkfed lajpuk dk fuekz.k djuk,iyhds'ku MsoyilZ }kjk iznùk lwpuk ds vk/kj ij vko';drkuqlkj MkVkcsl lajpuk esa la'kks/u djuka iz;ksdrkvksa dk ukekadu djuk (enrolling) rfkk fllve dh lqj{kk dks cuk;s j[kuka vkwjsdy ykblsul vuqca/ ds vuqikyu dks lqfuf'pr djuka MkVkcsl esa iz;ksdrk ds,dlsl dks fu;af=kr,oa ekwuhvj djuka MkVkcsl ds izn'kzu dks ekwuhvj,oa vkwivhekbt (Optimize) djuka MkVkcsl lwpuk ds csdvi,oa fjdojh dh ;kstuk cukuka Vsi ij vkdzgkbo fd;s x;s MkVk (Arehived data) dks cuk, j[kuka MkVkcsl dks csdvi djuk,oa jhlvksj (restore) djuka rduhdh lg;ksx ds fy, vkwjsdy dkwikzsjs'ku ls leidz djuka lqj{kk vf/dkjh (Security Officers) dqn flfkfr;ksa esa] lkbv fdlh MkVkcsl ds fy,,d ;k vf/d lqj{kk vf/dkfj;ksa dks fu;qdr djrk gsa,d lqj{kk vfèkdkjh iz;ksdrkvksa dk ukekadu djrk gs] MkVkcsl esa iz;ksdrk ds,dlsl dk fu;a=k.k,oa ekwuhvj djrk gs rfkk fllve dh lqj{kk dks cuk, j[krk gsa DBA ds :i esa] bu nkf;roksa ds izfr vki mùkjnk;h ugha Hkh gks ldrs gsa] ;fn vkids lkbv ij,d i`fkd lqj{kk vf/dkjh gsa usvodz,mfefulvªsvlz (Network Administrator) dqn lkbvksa esa,d ;k vf/d usvodz,mfefulvªsvlz gksrs gsaa,d usvodz,mfefulvªsvj vkwjsdy ds usvodz vk/kfjr mriknksa] ;Fkk vkwjsdy usv lsok] dk lapkyu dj ldrk gsa 234,Iyhds'ku MsoyilZ (Application Developers),Iyhds'ku MsoyilZ MkVkcsl,Iyhds'kuksa dks fmtkbu djrs gsa,oa mudks fø;kfuor djrs gsaa buds nkf;roksa ds vurxzr fueu dk;z vkrs gsaa MkVkcsl,Iyhds'ku dks fmtkbu djuk,oa mudk fodkl djuka fdlh,iyhds'ku ds fy, MkVkcsl dh lajpuk dks fmtkbu rs;kj djuka fdlh,iyhds'ku ds fy, LVksjst dh vko';drkvksa dk vkdyu djuka fdlh,iyhds'ku ds fy, MkVkcsl dh lajpuk esa la'kks/u dks fufnz"v djuka mi;qzdr lwpuk dks MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj rd igq pkuka,iyhds'ku dks fodkløe esa vuqdqy (Tuning) cukuka fodkl dh vof/ esa,iyhds'ku ds lqj{kk ekin.mksa dks LFkkfir djuka buesa ls dqn dk;ks± dks,iyhds'ku MsoyilZ DBA ds lg;ksx ls leiuu dj ldrs gs aa

235 ,Iyhds'ku,MfefuLVªsVlZ (Application Administrators) fdlh,iyhds'ku fo'ks"k ds lapkyu gsrq,d vkwjsdy lkbv,d ;k vf/d,iyhds'ku,mfefulvªsvj dks fu;qdr dj ldrk gsa izr;sd,iyhds'ku dk viuk Lo;a dk,mfefulvªsvj gks ldrk gsa MkVkcsl iz;ksdrk (Database users) MkVkcsl iz;ksdrk,iyhds'kuksa ;k ;wfvfyvht ds ekè;e ls MkVkcsl ds lkfk ikjlifjd fø;k dj ldrs gsaa,d lkeku; iz;ksdrk ds nkf;roksa ds vurxzr fueu dk;z vkrs gsaa tgk vuqefr gks] ogk MkVk dks izfo"v djkuk] MkVk esa la'kks/u djuk rfkk bldks fevkuka MkVk ls fjikszv mriuu djuka 17.3 OEM dh lgk;rk ls DBA ds dk;ks± dks leiuu djuk (Using OEM to Perform DBA Tasks) OEM = Oracle Enterprise Manager (vkwjsdy,uvjizkbt izca/d) μ,d ;wfvfyvh gs] ftlds ekè;e ls DBA MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªs'ku liksvz VkLdksa dks leiuu djrk gsa tc vki fdlh Hkh Oracle 9i MkVkcsl dks balvkwy djrs gsa] rc ;wfuolzy balvkwyj (Universal Installer) lozj ;k odzlvs'ku ij OEM balvkwy dj nsrk gsa OEM esa fp=k dh Hkk fr f=k&lrjh; lajpuk (Three tier architecture) gksrh gsa vkwjsdy MkVkcsl iz'kkld fp=k % vkwjsdy,uvjizkbt izca/d lajpuk dulksy (Console) tgk DBA lapkyu laca/h dk;ks± (administration tasks) dks leiuuu djrk gsa vkwjsdy esustesav lozj (Oracle Management Server) vkwjsdy dk,d MkVkcsl lozj gs] tks fdlh laxbu ds MkVkcsl lapkyu laca/h dk;ks± esa lg;ksx iznku djrk gsa OMS fjiksftvjh (Repository) ds lkfk ikjlifjd fø;k djrk gsa fjiksftvjh (Repository) μ fofhkuu MkVkcslksa ds nwjlfk lapkyu gsrq lwpuk j[krk gsa blds i'pkr OMS fv;j (tier) 3 esa fofhkuu MkVkcsl lozjksa ds lkfk ikjlifjd fø;k djrk gsa MkVkcsl lapkyu laca/h fofhkuu dk;ks± dks laiuu djus gsrq vki OEM ds ekè;e ls MkVkcsl ds fofhkuu vkwctsdv~l dks,dlsl djrs gsaa MkVkcsl ds vkwctsdvksa esa balvkal (Instance), Ldhek] lqj{kk] LVksjst] fmflvªc;wvsm] os;jgkml] odzlisl] XML MkVkcsl lfeefyr gsaa balvkul (Instance) MkVkcsl balvkul ds ckjs esa lwpuk iznku djrk gs] balvkul laca/h lwpuk ds leiknu gsrq DBA dks vuqefr iznku djrk gs rfkk bauvkul dks vkjehk djus,oa cun djus dh vuqefr DBA dks iznku djrk gsa 235

236 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 236 Ldhek (Schema) lhkh ;wtj Ldhek ds vurxzr MkVkcsl vkwctsdvksa (;Fkk VscYl] lhdosulst] bumsdlst rfkk foo;wt) dks tk pus,oa esuhiqysv djus dh vuqefr DBA dks iznku djuk gsa lqj{kk (Security) DBA dks ;wtj vdkmuv~l dk fuekz.k,oa izca/u djus dh vuqefr iznku djrk gsa LVksjst (Storage) fo eku MkVkcsl dh LVksjst lajpuk ds ckjs esa lwpuk iznku djrk gs rfkk LVksjst lajpuk dk fuekz.k,oa bls dufiqxj djus dh vuqefr DBA dks iznku djrk gsa fmflvªc;svsm (Distributed) eyvhiy MkVkcsl lozjksa esa iqsys gq,,iyhds'kuksa,oa MkVkcslksa dks liksvz djus dh vuqefr DBA dks iznku djrk gsa os;jgkml (Warehouse) MkVkcsl dh fo"k;olrq ds fo'ys"k.k,oa nh?kz&vof/ ds ifjorzuksa (Trends) ij utj j[kus ds fy, DBA,oa MkVkcsl&MsoyilZ dks l{ke cukus okys,iyhds'ku iznku djrk gsa odzlisl (Workspace),d gh MkVk ds fofhkuu laldj.kksa (versions) dks ns[kus,oa mugsa cuk, j[kus ds fy, DBA rfkk vu; iz;ksdrkvksa dks lefkz cukrk gsa XML MkVkcsl μ vkwjsdy MkVkcsl Vscyksa ij vk/kfjr XML MkVkcsl dk fuekz.k djus esa DBA rfkk MkVkcsl MsoyilZ dks l{ke cukrk gsa 17.4 MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj ds dk;z (Tasks of a Database Administrator) fueufyf[kr dk;z,d vkwjsdy MkVkcsl dks fmtkbu djus] fø;kfuor djjus,oa cuk, j[kus gsrq,d izkfkfedrk vkèkkfjr,izksp izlrqr djrk gsa dk;z 1 : MkVkcsl lozj ds gkmzos;j dk ewy;kdau djuk (Evaluate The Database Server Hardware) vkwjsdy,oa blds,iyhds'ku miyc/ dei;wvj lalk/uksa dk fdl izdkj lozjs"b mi;ksx dj ldrs gsa] bldk ewy;kdau djsaa bl ewy;kdau ds ekè;e ls fueu lwpuk Li"V gks tkuh pkfg,a vkwjsdy,oa blds MkVkcslksa ds ikl fdrus fmld MªkbCl miyc/ gsaa vkwjsdy,oa blds MkVkcslksa ds ikl ;fn dksbz lefizr Vsi MªkbOl miyc/ gsa rks fdrus gsaa vkids }kjk ju fd;s x;s vkwjsdy ds balvkulst ds ikl fdruh eseksjh miyc/ gsa dk;z 2 : vkwjsdy lkwývos;j dks balvkwy djuk (Install The Oracle software) MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj ds :i esa vki vkwjsdy MkVkcsl lozj lkwývos;j o dksbz Hkh ÚaV,.M VwYl (front end tools) rfkk MkVkcsl dks,dlsl djus okys MkVkcsl,Iyhds'kuksa dks balvkwy djrs gsaa dqn forfjr izkslsflax balvkwys'ku (Distributed Processing Installation) esa MkVkcsl dks,d dsfunz; dei;wvj (MkVkcsl lozj) }kjk fu;af=kr fd;k tkrk gs rfkk MkVkcsl VwYl,oa,Iyhds'kuksa dks nwjlfk dei;wvjksa (Dyk;aV) ij fø;kfuor fd;k tkrk gsa bl flfkfr esa] vkwjsdy fø;kfuor djus okys dei;wvj dks nwjlfk e'khuksa ds lkfk la;ksftr djus gsrq vko';d vkwjsdy usv ds?kvdksa dks Hkh vo'; gh balvkwy fd;k tkuk pkfg,a dk;z 3 : MkVkcsl dh ;kstuk cukuk (Plan the Database) MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj ds :i esa] fueu ;kstuk vo'; gh cukbz tkuh pkfg,a MkVkcsl dh ykwftdy LVksjst lajpuka leiw.kz MkVkcsl dk fmtkbua MkVkcsl gsrq,d csdvi j.kuhfra

237 ;g ;kstuk cukuk egùoiw.kz gs fd MkVkcsl dh ykwftdy LVksjst lajpuk fllve ds izn'kzu,oa MkVkcsl ds fofhkuu esustesasv vkwijs'kuksa dks fdl izdkj izhkkfor djsxha mnkgj.k ds fy,] vius MkVkcsl ds fy, fdlh VscyLisllst dk fuekz.k djus ds iwoz vkidks ;g tkuuk pkfg, fd fdrus MkVkiQkby feydj ml VscyLisl dk xbu djsaxs] izr;sd VscyLisl esa fdl izdkj dh lwpuk lafpr dh tk;sxh rfkk MkVkiQkby fdl fmld Mªkbo esa HkkSfrd :i ls lafpr fd;s tk;saxsa tc vki MkVkcsl lajpuk ds leiw.kz ykwftdy LVksjst dh ;kstuk cuk;sa] rks bldk è;ku j[ksa fd tc MkVkcsl fufezr gks tk, rfkk ju djus yxs rks bl lajpuk dk D;k ifj.kke gksxka,sls fopkjksa ds vurxzr ;g Hkh lfeefyr gs fd dsls ykwftdy LVksjst lajpuk fueu dks izhkkfor djsxha vkwjsdy dks fø;kfuor djus okys dei;wvj dk izn'kzua MkVk,Dlsl vkwijs'kuksa dh vof/ esa MkVkcsl dk izn'kzua MkVkcsl gsrq csdvi,oa fjdojh izksfltjksa dh dk;zdq'kyrka MkVkcsl vkwctsdv~l ds fjys'kuy fmtkbu dh rfkk buesa ls izr;sd vkwctsdv~l gsrq LVksjst y{k.kksa dh ;kstuk cuk;saa izr;sd vkwctsdv,oa mlds HkkSfrd LVksjst ds chp laca/ cukus ds iwoz mldh ;kstuk cukdj vkki MkVkcsl ds izn'kzu dks,d bdkbz ds :i esa izr;{k :i ls izhkkfor dj ldrs gsaa MkVkcsl dh o`f¼ gsrq ;kstuk fuf'pr :i ls cuk;saa forfjr MkVkcsl okrkoj.k esa ;kstuk dk ;g pj.k vr;ar egùoiw.kz gsa izk;%,dlsl fd, tkus okys MkVk dh HkkSfrd yksds'ku,iyhds'ku ds izn'kzu dks ukvdh; :i ls izhkkfor dj nsrh gsa ;kstuk volfkk ds nksjku] MkVkcsl gsrq,d csdvi j.kuhfr dk fodkl djsaa vki MkVkcsl ds ykwftdy LVksjst dh lajpuk ;k fmtkbu esa ifjorzu ykdj csdvi dh dk;zdq'kyrk esa lq/kj yk ldrs gsaa dk;z 4 : MkVkcsl dk fuekz.k,oa vkjehk djuk (Create and Open The Database) tc MkVkcsl ds fmtkbu dks iw.kz dj ysrs gsa] rks vki MkVkcsl dk fuekz.k dj ldrs gsa,oa mls lkeku; mi;ksx gsrq vkjehk dj ldrs gsaa vki MkVkcsl dufiqxjs'ku vfllvsav (Database Configuration Assistant) dh lgk;rk ls balvkys'ku dh vof/ esa MkVkcsl dk fuekz.k dj ldrs gsa] vfkok vki,d MkVkcsl ds fuekz.k gsrq Lofyf[kr fløivksa (Scripts) dks mi;ksx esa yk ldrs gsaa dk;z 5 : MkVkcsl dk csdvi djuk (Back up The Database) MkVkcsl lajpuk ds fuekz.k ds i'pkr] MkVkcsl ds fy, rs;kj dh xbz csdvi j.kuhfr ij dk;z djsaa fdlh Hkh vfrfjdr jhmw ykwx iqkbyksa dk fuekz.k djsa] igys ifjiw.kz MkVkcsl csdvi (vkwuykbu ;k vkwiqykbu) dks ysa] rfkk Hkfo"; esa fu;fer vurjky ij MkVkcsl csdvi gsrq 'ksm~;wy rs;kj djsaa dk;z 6 : fllve iz;ksdrkvksa dk ukekadu djuk (Enroll System Users) MkVkcsl lajpuk dk csdvi djus ds i'pkr vki MkVkcsl ds iz;ksdrkvksa dk ukekadu vkwjsdy ds ykblsal vuqcu/ ds vuq:i dj ldrs gsa] bu iz;ksdrkvksa gsrq mi;qdr Hkwfedk dk fuekz.k djsa rfkk mugsa ;s Hkwfedk iznku djsaa dk;z 7 : MkVkcsl ds fmtkbu dks fø;kfuor djuk (Execute the Database Design) μ MkVkcsl dk fuekz.k djus,oa mls vkjehk djus rfkk fllve ds iz;ksdrkvks dks ukekafdr djus ds i'pkr vki lhkh vko';d VcyLislst dk fuekz.k djds rs;kj fd;s x, MkVkcsl ds ykwftdy lajpuk dks fø;kfuor dj ldrs gs aa tc vki bls iw.kz dj ys axs rc vki ml MkVkcsl gsrq vkwctsdv~l dk fuekz.k dj ldrs gs aa vkwjsdy MkVkcsl iz'kkld 237

238 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 238 dk;z 8 : iw.kzr% fø;k'khy MkVkcsl dk csdvi ysuk (Backup The Fully Functional Database) vc vkidk MsVkcsl iw.kzr% fø;kfuor gks pqdk gs] MkVkcsl dks fiqj ls csdvi djsaa fu;fer :i ls 'ksm~;wy fd;s x, csdvi ds vfrfjdr] MkVkcsl dh lajpuk esa ifjorzu djus ds rqjar ckn ges'kk MkVkcsl dk csdvi fy;k tkkuk pkfg,a dk;z 9 : MkVkcsl ds izn'kzu dks V~;wu djuk (Tune Database Performance) DBA ds :i esa vkids nkf;roksa esa ls,d nkf;ro MkVkcsl ds izn'kzu dks vkwfivekbt (Optimize) djuk gsa blds vfrfjdr vkwjsdy ds vurxzr MkVkcsl lalk/u izca/u dh,d fo'ks"krk gs] tks vkidks iz;ksdrkvksa ds fofhkuu lewgksa gsrq lalk/uksa ds vkoavu ij fu;u=k.k j[kus esa l{ke cukrh gsa 17.5 MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj dh lqj{kk,oa mlds fo'ks"kkf/dkj (Database Administrator Security And Privileges) fdlh vkwjsdy DBA ds lapkyu laca/h dk;ks± dks leiuu djus ds fy, MkVkcsl rfkk lahkor% lozj ds ml vkwijsfvax fllve] ftl ij MkVkcsl ju dj jgk gs] nksuksa ds vurxzr vfrfjdr fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa dh vko';drk im+rh gsa MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj esa,dlsl dks dbksjrk iwozd fu;af=kr fd;k tkuk pkfg,a MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj dk vkwijsfvax fllve vdkmav (The Database Administrator Operating System Account) fdlh MkVkcsl ds fy, lapkyu laca/h vusd nkf;roksa ds fuogzu gsrq vkidks vkwijsfvax fllve ds dek.mksa dks fø;kfuor djus ;ksx; vo'; gh gksuk pkfg,a vkwjsdy dks fø;kfuor djus okys vkwijsfvax fllve ds vk/kj ij vkidks vkwijsfvax fllve esa,dlsl izkir djus ds fy, vkwijsfvax fllve dk,d vdkmav ;k ID dh vko';drk im+ ldrk gsa ;fn,slk gs] rks vkids vkwijsfvax fllve vdkmav dks dbz MkVkcsl iz;ksdrkvksa dh vis{kk vkwijsfvax fllve ds vf/d fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa ;k,dlsl djus ds vf/dkjksa dh vko';drk im+ ldrh gs (mnkgj.k ds fy,] vkwjsdy lkwývos;j ds balvkys'ku esa)a ; fi ;g vko';d ugha gs fd vkwjsdy iqkby vkids vdkmav esa lafpr fd;s tk;sa rfkkfi vkidks muesa,dlsl djus dk vf/dkj gksuk pkfg,a MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj ;wtjuse (Database Administrator Username) de ls de,d vfrfjdr,mfefulvªsvj ;wtj dk fuekz.k fd;k tkuk pkfg,,oa ml ;wtj dks DBA dh Hkwfedk nh tkuh pkfg,] rkfd izfrfnu ds lapkyu laca/h dk;ks± dks og leiuu dj ldsa bldh vuq'kalk dh tkrh gs fd bu mís';ksa gsrq vki SYS,oa SYSTEM dk iz;ksx u djsaa SYS : tc fdlh MkVkcsl dk fuekz.k fd;k tkrk gs] rks iz;ksdrk SYS Lor% gh fufezr gks tkrk gs rfkk mls DBA dh Hkwfedk iznku dj nh tkrh gsa MkVkcsl dh MkVk fmd'kujh gsrq lhkh csl Vscyksa,oa O;wt dks Ldhek SYS esa lafpr fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy ds lapkyu gsrq ;s csl Vscy,oa O;wt vr;f/d egùoiw.kz gsaa MkVk fmd'kujh dh v[kamrk dks cuk;s j[kus ds fy,] SYS Ldhek esa Vscyksa dks dsoy vkwjsdy }kjk gh esuhiqysv fd;k tkrk gsa bugsa fdlh iz;ksdrk ;k MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj }kjk dhkh Hkh la'kksf/r ugha fd;k tkuk pkfg,] rfkk ;wtj SYS ds Ldhek esa fdlh ds Hkh }kjk dksbz Vscy cuk;k tkuk pkfg,a (ijurq vko';drkuqlkj vki MkVk fmd'kujh dh lsfvax ds LVksjst isjkehvjksa esa ifjorzu yk ldrs gsaa) ;g lqfuf'pr djsa fd vf/dka'k MkVkcsl ;wtj dhkh Hkh SYS vdkmav dk iz;ksx djds dusdv djus esa l{ke gks ldsaa SYSTEM : tc fdlh MkVkcsl dk fuekz.k fd;k tkrk gs rks iz;ksdrk SYSTEM Lor% gh fufezr gks tkrk gs rfkk mls DBA dh Hkwfedk iznku dj nh tkrh gsa

239 SYSTEM ;wtjuse dk mi;ksx vfrfjdr Vscyks a o O;wt dk fuekz.k djus es a fd;k tkrk gs] tks lapkyu lacaèkh lwpuk dks iznf'kzr djrs gs a rfkk SYSTEM ;wtjuse dk mi;ksx fofhkuu vkwjsdy fodyiks a,oa VwYl }kjk iz;qdr vkurfjd Vscyks a o O;wt ds fuekz.k es a Hkh fd;k tkrk gsa O;fDrxr iz;ksdrkvks a ls lacaf/r Vscyks a dk fuekz.k SYSTEM Ldhek es a dhkh Hkh ugha djs aa DBA dh Hkwfedk (The DBA Role) izr;sd vkwjsdy MkVkcsl ds lkfk DBA uked,d iwoz ifjhkkf"kr Hkwfedk Lor% gh fufezr gks tkrh gsa bl Hkwfedkk esa MkVkcsl fllve ds vf/dka'k fo'ks"kkf/dkj miflfkr jgrs gsaa vr% ;g cgqr gh 'kfdr'kkyh gksrk gs rfkk bls iw.kzr% fø;k'khy MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj dks gh iznku fd;k tkuk pkfg,a 17.6 MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj dk izek.khdj.k (Database Administritor Authentication) DBA ds :i esa vkidks izk;% fo'ks"k dk;z djus im+rs gsaa tsls MkVkcsl dks cun ;k vkkjehk djuka pw fd bu dk;ks± dks dsoy DBA }kjk gh leiuu djk;k tkuk pkfg,] vr% MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj ds ;wtjuse dks,d lqjf{kr izek.khdj.k Ldhe (Secure authentication Scheme) dh vko';drk im+rh gsa lapkyu laca/h fo'ks"kkf/dkj (Administrator Privileges) MkVkcsl ds ewyhkwr dk;ks ± dks djus gsrq fdlh,mfefulvª svj ds fy, vko';d lapkyu laca/h fo'ks"kkf/dkj fllve ds nks [kkl fo'ks"kkf/ dkjks a SYSDBA o SYSOPER ds ekè;e ls iznku fd;s tkrs gs aa vkids ikl bues a ls dksbz,d fo'ks"kkf/ dkj gksuk gh pkfg,] tks vkids fy, vko';d izkf/dj.k (Authorization) ij fuhkzj djrk gsa SYSDBA rfkk SYSOPER SYSDBA,oa SYSOPER uked fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa }kjk vf/ñr dk;z fueu gsaa rkfydk 1 System vf/dkj vf/ñr dk;z SYSDBA MkVkcsl 'kq: vksj can djuk MkVkcsl esa ifjorzu (Alter Table) MkVkcsl fuekz.k Archivelog vksj Recovery Spfile cukuk vkwjsdy MkVkcsl iz'kkld SYSOPER MkVkcsl 'kq: vksj can djuk Spfile cukuk MkVkcsl esa ifjorzu (Alter Table) Archivelog vksj Recovery ;g fo'ks"kkf/dkj iz;ksdrk dks lapkyu laca/h ewyhkwr dk;ks± ds fu"iknu esa l{ke cukrk gs] ijurq blds }kjk ;wtj ds MkVk dks ns[k ikuk lahko ugha gks ikrk gsa vkids }kjk p;fur izek.khdj.k dh fof/ ds vk/kj ij gh vkki bu fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa ds mi;ksx gsrq vf/ñr gks ikrs gsaa tc vki SYSDBA ;k SYSOPER fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa ds lkfk dusdv djrs gsa] rc vki,d fmiqkwyv Ldhek ds lkfk dusdv djrs gsa] u fd ml Ldhek ds lkfk tks lkeku;r% vkids ;wtjuse ds lkfk tqm+k gksrk gsa SYSDBA ds fy, ;g Ldhek SYS gsa SYSOPER ds fy, ;g Ldhek Public gsa 17.7 vkwijsfvax fllve ds izek.khdj.k dk iz;ksx djuk (Using Operating System (OS) Authertication) bl [k.m esa bldk o.kzu gs fd vkwijsfvax fllve dh lgk;rk ls,d,mfefulvªs'ku dsls izekf.kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa 239

240 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy OS izekf.kdj.k ds mi;ksx dh rs;kjh djuk (Preparing to Use OS Authertication) vkwijsfvax fllve dh lgk;rk ls,d lapkyudùkkz (administrator user) dks izekf.kr djus ds fy, fueu dk vo'; gh vuqlj.k djsaa 1. iz;ksdrk ds fy, vkwijsfvax fllve ds,d vdkmav dk fuekz.k djsaa 2. iz;ksdrk dks vkwijsfvax fllve ds ifjhkkf"kr lewgksa OSDBA ;k OSOPER esa lfeefyr djsaa 3. ;g lqfuf'pr djsa fd bfuf'k;ykbts'ku isjkehvj (Initialization Parameter) Remote_Login_Password File dks none ij lsv dj fn;k x;k gsa ;g bl isjkehvj ds fy, fmiqkwyv eku gksrk gsa OS izek.khdj.k dk mi;ksx djrs gq, dusdv djuk (Connecting Using OS Authertication) fueu SQL*Plus dek.mksa esa ls fdlh,d dks Vkbi djds,d iz;ksdrk dks izekf.kr fd;k tk ldrk gs] lapkyudùkkz ds :i esa lfø; fd;k tk ldrk gs rfkk fdlh LFkkuh; MkVkcsl ds lkfk mls dusdv fd;k tk ldrk gsa Connect/As Sysdba Connect/As Sysoper,d lqjf{kr dusd'ku esa nwjlfk MkVkcsl dusd'ku ds fy, iz;ksdrk ds fy, ml nwjlfk MkVkcsl ds usv lsok dk uke Hkh vo'; gh fufnz"v fd;k tkuk pkfg,a Connect net_service_name As Sysdba Connect net_service_name As Sysoper OSDBA rfkk OSOPER tc OS izek.khdj.k dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] rc vkwijsfvax fllve ds nks fo'ks"k lewg MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj ds dusd'kuksa dks fu;af=kr djrs gsaa bu lewgksa dks lkeku;r% OSDBA rfkk OSOPER dgk tkrk gsa MkVkcsl balvkys'ku dh izfø;k ds Hkkx ds :i esa lewgksa dk fuekz.k fd;k tkrk gs,oa mugsa fof'k"v uke iznku fd;k tkrk gsa ;s fof'k"v uke vyx&vyx gksrs gsa] tks vkids vkwijsfvax fllve ij fuhkzj djrs gsaa bugsa fueu lkj.kh esa lwphc¼ fd;k x;k gsa OPERATING SYSTEM GROUP UNIX Windows OSDBA dba ORA_DBA OSOPER oper ORA_OPER vkwjsdy ;wfuolzy balvkyj }kjk dfyir fmiqkwyv ukeksa dks jí fd;k tk ldrk gsa OSDBA,oa OSOPER lewgksa dk fuekz.k vki dsls djsaxs] ;g vkwijsfvax fllve ij fuhkzj djrk gsa fueufyf[kr ;g o.kzu djrk fd dsls OSDBA ;k OSOPER lewg dh lnl;rk vkwjsdy ls vkids dusd'ku dks izhkkfor djrk gsa ;fn vki OSDBA lewg ds,d lnl; gs a rfkk tc vki MkVkcsl ls dusdv djrs le; AS SYSDBA fufnz"v djrs gsa] rc vkidks SYSDBA uked fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkj iznku fd;k tkrk gsa ;fn vki OSOPER lewg ds,d lnl; gs a rfkk tc vki MkVkcsl ls dusdv djrs le; AS SYSOPER fufnz"v djrs gsa rc vkidks SYSOPER uked fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkj iznku fd;k tkrk gsa 240 ;fn vki SYSDBA ;k SYSOPER fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa ds fy, lacaf/r vkwijsfvax fllve lewg ds lnl; ugha gs a rc Connect dek.m vliqy gks tk;sxka

241 iklomz iqkby izek.khdj.k dk mi;ksx djuk (Using Password File Authentication) ;g [k.m bldk o.kzu djrk gs fd iklomz iqkby izekf.kdj.k dh lgk;rk ls dsls lapkyudùkkz dks izekkf.kr fd;k tk;sa iklomz iqkby izek.khdj.k ds mi;ksx dh rs;kjh djuk (Preparing to use Password File Authertication) iklomz iqkby izek.khdj.k dh lgk;rk ls,d lapkyudùkkz (administrator User) dks izekf.kr djus ds fy, fueu dk vo'; gh vuqlj.k djsaa 1. iz;ksdrk ds fy, vkwijsfvax fllve esa,d vdkmav dk fuekz.k djsaa 2. ;fn ;g igys ls fufezr ugha gs rks ORAPWD ;wfvfyvh dh lgk;rk ls iklomz iqkby dk fuekz.k djsaa 3. ORAPWD FILE = filename PASSWORD = password ENTRIES = max_users 4. bfuf'k;ykbts'ku isjkehvj REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORD FILE esa EXCLUSIVE lsv djsaa 5. SYS iz;ksdrk ds :i esa MkVkcsl ds lkfk dusdv djsa (;k lapkyu laca/h fo'ks"kkf/dkj ds lkfk fdlh vu; iz;ksdrk ds :i esa) 6. ;fn MkVkcsl esa ;wtj igys ls gh vflrro esa ugha gs] rks ;wtj dks fufezr djsaa bl ;wtj dks SYSDBA ;k SYSOPER fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkj iznku djsaa 7. GRANT SYSDBA to scott; 8. ;g dfku ;wtj dks iklomz iqkby ls tksm+rk gs] rfkk Sysdba dusd'ku dks lfø; djrk gsa iklomz iqkby izek.khdj.k dh lgk;rk ls dusdv djuk (Connecting Using Password File Authentication) lapkyudùkkzvksa dks SQL*Plus ds Connect dek.m dh lgk;rk ls fdlh LFkkuh; ;k nwjlfk MkVkcsl ds lkfk dusdv rfkk izekf.kr fd;k tk ldrk gsa mugsa vius vius ;wtjuse,oa iklomz ds lkfk&lkfk As Sysdba ;k As sysoper dk Hkh iz;ksx djrs gq, dusdv djuk pkfg,a mnkgj.k ds fy, scott uked iz;ksdrk dh Sysdba fo'ks"kkf/dkj iznku fd;k x;k gs] vr% og fueu dh Hkk fr dusdv dj ldrk gsa Connect Scott/tiger As sysdba ijurq] pw fd Scott dks Sysoper fo'ks"kkkf/dkj iznku ugha fd;k x;k gs] blfy, fueu dek.m vliqy gks tk;sxka Connect Scott/tiger As sysoper 17.8 iklomz iqkby dk fuekz.k,oa j[k&j[kko djuk (Creating And Maintaing a Password File) vki iklomz iqkby fø,'ku ;wfvfyvh (Password file creation Utility), Orapwd dh lgk;rk ls,d iklomz iqkby dk fuekz.k dj ldrs gsaa dqn vkwijsfvax fllveksa ds vurxzr vki bl iqkby dks LVS.MMZ balvkwys'ku ds Hkkx ds :i esa fufezr dj ldrs gsaa Orapwd dk mi;ksx djuk (Using Orapwd) tc vki iklomz iqkby fø,'ku ;wfvfyvh dks fcuk dksbz isjkehvj iznku fd;s gh buoksd (invoke) djrs gsa] rks vkidks,d lans'k izkir gksrk gs] ftlesa fueu lseiy vkmviqv dh Hkk fr dek.m ds mi;qdr iz;ksx dk ladsr fn;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy MkVkcsl iz'kkld 241

242 a vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 242 Orapwd Usage : orapwd file = <F name> Password = <password> entries = <users> file xqir 'kcn iqkby dk uke entries fhkuu DBA dh la[;k fueu dek.m skp.pwd uked,d iklomz iqkby dk fuekz.k djrk gs] tks fo'ks"kkf/dkj izkir mu iz;ksdrkvksa rd dks vyx&vyx iklomks± ds lkfk tqm+us dh vuqefr nsrk gsa bl mnkgj.k esa SYS ds :i esa dusdv djus okys iz;ksdrk ds fy, Secret iklomz ds lkfk iqkby dks izkjehk es fufezr fd;k tkrk gsa ORAPWD FILE = skp.pwd PASSWORD = pandey ENTRIES = 30 ORAPWD ;wfvfyvh esa miyc/ isjkehvjksa dk o.kzu fueufyf[kr gsa FILE ;g isjkehvj fufezr fd;s tk jgs iklomz iqkby ds uke dks fu/kzfjr djrk gsa iqkby ds iwjs ikfk ds uke (full path name) dks fufnz"v fd;k gh tkuk pkfg,a bl iqkby dh fo"k;&olrq dks buføivsm j[kk tkrk gsa ;g isjkehvj vfuok;z gksrk gsa iklomz iqkby ds fy, Lohdk;Z ukeksa ds izdkj vkwijsfvax fllve ij fuhkzj djrs gsaa dqn vkwijsfvax fllveksa ds fy, ;g vko';d gksrk gs fd iklomz iqkby,d fof'k"v iqkeszv esa miyc/ gks rfkk,d fof'k"v Mk;jsDVªh esa voflfkr gksa vu; vkwijsfvax fllveksa esa iklomz iqkby ds uke,oa yksds'ku dks fufnz"v djus ds fy,,uok;jesav osfj;scyksa (environment variables) dk iz;ksx Lohdk;Z gksrk gsa vius IysViQkeZ ij Lohdk;Z ukeksa,oa yksds'kuksa ds fy, vkids vkijsfvax fllve ls lacaf/r vkwjsdy MkWD;wesaVs'ku dks ns[ksaa Password ;g isjkehvj SYS iz;ksdrk gsrq iklomz dks lsv djrk gsa ;fn vki MkVkcsl ls dusdv djus ds i'pkr SYS ds fy, iklomz dks cnyus gsrq Alter User dfku dks tkjh djrs gs a] rks MkVk fmd'kujh,oa iklomz iqkby nksuks a es a lafpr iklomz vimsv gks tkrs gs aa ;g isjkehvj vfuok;z gksrk gsa Entries ;g isjkehvj mu izfof"v;ks a (entries) dh la[;k dks fufnz"v djrk gs] ftls vki pkgrs gs a fd iklomz iqkby Lohdkj djsa ;g la[;k mu i`fkd iz;ksdrkvks a dh la[;k ds rqy; gksrh gs] ftugs a MkVkcsl ds lkfk Sysdba ;k sysoper ds :i es a dusdv djus dh vuqefr izkir gksrh gsa Lohdk;Z izfof"v;ks a dh oklrfod la[;k iz;ksdrkvks a dh la[;k dh rqyuk es a mpprj gks ldrh gs] D;ks afd Orapwd ;wfvfyvh iklomz fuxzr djuk rc rd tkjh j[krk gs] tc rd vkwijsfvax fllve dk CykWd Hkj u tk;sa mnkgj.k ds fy, ;fn vkids vkwijsfvax fllve ds CykWd dk vkdkj 512 ckbv gs] rks ;g pkj iklomz izfrf"v;ks dks j[k ldrk gsa vkoafvr iklomz izfrf"v;ks a dh la[;k ges'kk pkj ds xq.kt es a gksrh gsa izfof"v;ksa dks iqu% iz;qdr fd;k tk ldrk gs D;ksafd iz;ksdrkvksa dks iklomz iqkby ls tksm+us,oa gvkus dk Øe pyrk jgrk gsa ;fn vkidk bjknk REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE = EXCLU- SIVE dks fufnz"v djuk rfkk iz;ksdrkvksa dks SYSDBA,oa SYSOPER fo'ks"kkf/dkj iznku djuk gs] rks bl isjkehvj dh vko';drk im+ ldrh gsa REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORD FILE dks lsv djuk iklomz iqkby fuekz.k djus ds vfrfjdr] vkids fy, bfuf'k;ykbts'ku isjkehvj REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORD FILE dks mi;qdr eku ls lsv djuk Hkh vko';d gks tkrk gsa fueu esa osls ekuksa dk o.kzu gs] tks eku; gsa eku o.kzu NONE bl isjkehvj dks None lsv djus ij vkwjsdy,slk O;ogkj djrk gs] tsls iklomz iqkby vflrro esa gh u gksa vfkkzr~ vlqjf{kr dusd'kuksa (non secure connections) ij fdlh Hkh fo'ks"kkf/dkj izkir dusd'kuksa dh vuqefr ugha gksrh gsa bl isjkehvj dk fmiqkwyv eku None gksrk gsa

243 Exclusive Shared Exclusive iklomz iqkby dk mi;ksx ek=k,d gh MkVkcsl ds lkfk gks ldrk gsa dsoy Exclusive iqkby esa gh sys ds vfrfjdr iz;ksdrkvksa ds uke j[ks tk ldrs gsaa Exclusive iklomz iqkby }kjk vki sysdba,oa sysoper fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa dks vyx&vyx iz;ksdrkvksa gsrq iznku dj ikus esa l{ke gks ikrs gsa rfkk mugsa Lo;a gh dusdv dj ikus esa lefkz cuk ikrs gsaa Shared iklomz iqkby dk mi;ksx eyvhiy MkVkcslks a ds fy, fd;k tk ldrk gsa ijurq Shared iklomz iqkby }kjk eku;,dek=k iz;ksdrk SYS gksrk gsa vki Shared iklomz iqkby es a iz;ksdrk dks lfeefyr ugha dj ldrs gs aa Sysdba ;k sysoper fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkj dh vko';drk j[kus okys lhkh iz;ksdrkvks a dks,d gh uke sys iklomz ds }kjk dusdv djuk pkfg,a ;fn vkids ikl eyvhiy MkVkcsl dk lapkyu djus ds fy,,d gh DBA gs] rks ;g fodyi mi;ksxh gksrk gsa vkwjsdy MkVkcsl iz'kkld iklomz iqkby esa iz;ksdrkvksa dks lfeefyr djuk (Adding Users to a Password File) tc vki,d iz;ksdrk dks sysdba ;k sysoper fo'ks"kkf/dkj iznku djrs gsa] rks iklomz iqkby esa iz;ksdrk dk uke,oa fo'ks"kkf/dkj laca/h lwpuk tqm+ tkrh gsa ;fn lozj esa,d Exclusive iklomz iqkby ugha gs (vfkkzr~ Remote_login_password file uked bfuf'k;ykbts'ku isjkehvj none ;k shared gks)] rks bu fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa dks iznku djus dk iz;kl djus ij vkidks Lor% =kqfv lans'k (error Massage) izkir gksxka fdlh iz;ksdrk dk uke iklomz iqkby esa ek=k rhkh rd jgrk gs tc rd iz;ksdrk ds ikl bu nksuksa fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa esa de ls de,d mlds ikl gksa ;fn vki bu nksuksa fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa dks jí (revoke) djrs gsa] rks iz;ksdrk dks iklomz iqkby ls gvk fn;k tkrk gsa iklomz iqkby dk fuekz.k djuk rfkk u, iz;ksdrk dks blesa tksm+uk (To Create a Password File And Add New Users To It) 1. Remote_login_password file uked bfuf'k;ykbts'ku isjkehvj esa Exclusive lsv djsaa 2. fueu mnkgj.k dh Hkk fr Sysdba fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa ds lkfk dusdv djsaa 3. Connect Sys/Password As Sysdba 4. ;fn vko';d gks] rks balvkwul dks vkjehk djsa,oa MkVkcsl dk fuekz.k djsa vfkok igys ls fo eku fdlh MkVkcsl dks ekmav (mount) djsa rfkk [kksysaa 5. vko';drkuqlkj ;wtlz dk fuekz.k djsaa vius vki dks sysdba ;k sysoper fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa rfkk vu; iz;ksdrkvksa dks mi;qdr vf/dkj iznku djsaa fdlh iz;ksdrk dks sysdba ;k sysoper fo'ks"kkf/dkj iznku djus ij mldk ;wtjuse iklomz iqkby esa tqm+ tkrk gsa ;g iz;ksdrk dks ;wtjuse o iklomz (sys iz;ksx djus dk LFkku ij) fufnz"v djds sysdba ;k sysoper ds :i esa MkVkcsl ls dusdv dj ikus esa l{ke cukrk gsa iklomz iqkby dk mi;ksx OS izek.khñr iz;ksdrkvksa dks dusdv djus ls ugha jksdrk gs] ;fn os OS izekf.kdj.k ds ekin.mksa ij [kjs mrjrs gsaa Sysdba,oa sysoper fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa dks iznku djuk,oa jí djuk (Creating And Revoking Sysdba and Sysoper Privileges) ;fn vkidk lozj,d Exclusive iklomz iqkby dk mi;ksx dj jgk gs] rks fueu mnkgj.k dh Hkk fr iz;ksdrk dks sysdba ;k sysoper fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkj dks iznku djus gsrq Grant dfku dk mi;ksx djs aa Grant Sysdba To scott; Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- MkVkcsl ç;ksùkqk dksu gksrs gsa \ 2- lapkyu lecaèkh fo'ks"k vfèkdkj D;k gksrk gs \ 3- SQL Loader D;k gs \ 243

244 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy fueu mnkgj.k dh Hkk fr iz;ksdrk dks sysdba ;k sysoper fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa dks jí djus ds (revoke) fy, REVOKE dfku dk mi;ksx djsaa Revoke Sysdba From Scott; pw fd sysdba,oa sysoper MkVkcsl dk lcls 'kfdr'kkyh fo'ks"kkf/dkj gs] vr% Admin Option dk iz;ksx ugha fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh iz;ksdrk ds sysdba ;k sysoper fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa dks dsoy ogh iz;ksdrk iznku ;k jí dj ldrk gs] tks ml {k.k sysdba (;k Internal) ds :i esa dusdv gksa ;s fo'ks"kkf/dkj Hkwfedkvksa (role) dks iznku ugha fd;k tk ldrk gs] D;ksafd Hkwfedk, MkVkcsl ds vkjehk gksus ds ckn gh miyc/ gks ikrh gsaa sysdba,oa syoper MkVkcsl fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa,oa vkwijsfvax fllve dh Hkwfedkvksa dks,d leku le>us dk Hkze u djsa] D;ksafd ;s Hkwfedk, furkar Lora=k fo'ks"krk, gsaa iklomz iqkby ds lnl;ksa dks ns[kuk (Viewing Password File Members) V$pwfile_users ds mi;ksx }kjk vki mu iz;ksdrkvksa dks ns[k ldrs gsa] ftugsa fdlh MkVkcsl gsrq sysdba ;k sysoper fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkj iznku fd;k x;k gsa bl foo;w (view) }kjk iznf'kzr dkwye (columns) fueu gsaa dkwye Username sysdba sysoper o.kzu rkfydk 1 bl dkwye esa iklomz iqkby }kjk eku; iz;ksdrk ds uke j[ks tkrs gsaa ;fn bl dkwye dk eku True gs] rc iz;ksdrk sysdba fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa ds lkfk ykwx vkwu dj ldrs gsaa ;fn bl dkwye dk eku True gs rc iz;ksdrk sysoper fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa ds lkfk ykwx vkwu dj ldrk gsa 244 iklomz iqkby dk j[kj[kko djuk (Maintaing a Password File) bl [k.m esa ;g o.kzu fd;k x;k gs fd dsls iklomz iqkby esa iz;ksdrkvksa dks c<+k;k tk ldrk gs] ;fn iklomz iqkby Hkj tk;sa iklomz iqkby dks gvk;k tk ldrk gsa iklomz iqkby dh flfkfr esa ifjorzu ls cpk tk ldrk gsa iklomz iqkby ds iz;ksdrkvksa dh la[;k esa o`f¼ djuk (Expanding the Number of Password File Users) ;fn fdlh iz;ksdrk dks sysdba ;k sysoper fllve fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa dks iznku djus dk iz;kl djrs le; vkidks iqkby esa Hkj tkus laca/h =kqfv lans'k (ORA-1996) izkir gksrk gs rks vkidks vo'; gh,d cm+k iklomz iqkby cukuk im+sxk,oa iz;ksdrkvksa dks iqu% fo'ks"kkf/dkj iznku djuk im+sxka iklomz iqkby dks izfrlfkkfir djuk (To Replace a Password File) 1. mu iz;ksdrkvksa dks uksv djsa] ftugksaus V$pwfile_users foo;w ls iz'u iwndj sysdba ;k sysoper fo'ks"kkf/dkj izkir fd;k gsa 2. MkVkcsl dks cun dj nsaa 3. fo eku iklomz iqkby dks fevk nsaa 4. Orapwd ;wfvfyvh dh lgk;rk ls,d ubz iklomz iqkby ds fuekz.k gsrq funs Z'kks a dk ikyu djs aa ;g lqfuf'pr djs a fd Entries isjkehvj dks ml cm+h ls cm+h la[;k ls lsv djs a] ftldh vkids vuqlkj dhkh vko';drk im+ ldrh gsa

245 iklomz iqkby dks gvkuk (Removing a Password File) ;fn vki ;g fu/kzfjr djrs gsa fd iz;ksdrkvksa dks izekf.kr djus ds fy, vc iklomz iqkby dh vko';drk ugha gsa] rks vki iklomz iqkby dks fevk ldrs gsa rfkk Remote_Login_Passwordfile Nonr lsv dj ldrs gs aa bl iqkby dks gvkus ds i'pkr] ek=k ogh iz;ksdrk] ftugsa vkwijsfvax fllve }kjk izekf.kr fd;k tk ldrk gs] MkVkcsl ds lapkyu laca/h dk;ks± dks leiuu dj ldrs gsaa iklomz iqkby ds LVsV dks cnyuk (Changing The Password File State) iklomz iqkby dh LVsV (state) dks iklomz iqkby es a lafpr j[kk tkr gsa tc vki fdlh iklomz iqkby dk lozizfke fuekz.k djrs gs a] rks mldk fmiqkwyv LVsV SHARED gksrk gsa iklomz iqkby ds LVsV dks vki bfuf'k;ykbts'ku ikjkehvj REMOTE_LOGI_PASSWORDFILE dks lsvdj ds cny ldrs gs aa tc vki,d bzlvkul dks vkjehk djrs gs a] vkwjsdy bl ikjkehvj ds eku dks vkids Dyk;UV e'khu es a lafpr isjkehvj iqkby ls iqu% izkir (Remove) djrk gsa tc vki MkVkcsl dks vkmav djrs gs a] rks vkwjsdy bl isjkehvj ds eku dks iklomz iqkby es a lafpr eku ls rqyuk djrk gsa ;fn nksuks a eku vkil es a ugha fey ikrs gs a] rks vkwjsdy iqkby es a lafpr eku dks vksojjkbv (overwrite) dj nsrk gsa 11.6 MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªVj ;wfvfyfvt (Database Administrator Utilities) vkwjsdy MkVkcsl esa vkids MkVk ds j[k j[kko esa lg;ksx ds fy, dbz ;qfvfyfvt miyc/ gsaa SQL * Loader MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªVj rfkk vkwjsdy ds vu; iz;ksdrk nksuksa SQL*Loader dk mi;ksx djrs gsaa ;g MkVk dks vkwijsfvax fllve dh LVS.MMZ iqkbyksa (tsls VsDLV iqkby ;k C MkVk iqkweszv laca/h iqkby) ls vkwjsdy ds MkVkcsl Vscyksa esa yksm+ djrk gsa,dliksvz,oa beiksvz (Export and Import),DliksVZ,oa beiksvz ;wfvfyvht vkidks vkwjsdy iqkweszv esa fo eku MkVk dks vkwjsdy MkVkcslksa esa Mkyus ;k bls MkVkcsl ls gvkus esa vkidks lefkz cukrk gsa mnkgj.k ds fy,],dliksvz iqkby MkVk dks vkfpzo (archive) dj ldrk gs ;k MkVk dks mu fofhkuu vkwjsdy MkVkcsl ds eè; LFkkukarfjr dj ldrk gs] tks,d gh vyx&vyx vkwijsfvax fllveksa ij ju djrk gsa vkwjsdy MkVkcsl iz'kkld lkjka'k (Summary) izr;sd MkVkcsl esa bls lapkfyr djus gsrq de ls de,d MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj dh vko';drk im+rh gsa dqn flfkfr;ksa esa] lkbv fdlh MkVkcsl ds fy,,d ;k vf/d lqj{kk vf/dkfj;ksa dks fu;qdr djrk gsa,d lqj{kk vfèkdkjh iz;ksdrkvksa dk ukekadu djrk gs] MkVkcsl esa iz;ksdrk ds,dlsl dk fu;a=k.k,oa ekwuhvj djrk gs rfkk fllve dh lqj{kk dks cuk, j[krk gsa,d usvodz,mfefulvªsvj vkwjsdy ds usvodz vk/kfjr mriknksa] ;Fkk vkwjsdy usv lsok] dk lapkyu dj ldrk gsa,iyhds'ku MsoyilZ MkVkcsl,Iyhds'kuksa dks fmtkbu djrs gsa,oa mudks fø;kfuor djrs gs aa MkVkcsl iz;ksdrk,iyhds'kuksa ;k ;wfvfyvht ds ekè;e ls MkVkcsl ds lkfk ikjlifjd fø;k dj ldrs gs aa MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªsVj ds ;wtjuse dks,d lqjf{kr izek.khdj.k Ldhe (Secure authentication Scheme) dh vko';drk im+rh gsa 245

246 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. MkVkcsl iz;ksdrk,iyhds'kuksa ;k ;wfvfyvht ds ekè;e ls MkVkcsl ds lkfk ikjlifjd fø;k dj ldrs gsaa,d lkeku; iz;ksdrk ds nkf;roksa ds vurxzr fueu dk;z vkrs gsaa tgk vuqefr gks] ogk MkVk dks izfo"v djkuk] MkVk esa la'kks/u djuk rfkk bldks fevkuka MkVk ls fjikszv mriuu djuka 2. MkVkcsl ds ewyhkwr dk;ks± dks djus gsrq fdlh,mfefulvªsvj ds fy, vko';d lapkyu lacaèkh fo'ks"kkf/dkj fllve ds nks [kkl fo'ks"kkf/dkjksa SYSDBA o SYSOPER ds ekè;e ls iznku fd;s tkrs gsaa vkids ikl buesa ls dksbz,d fo'ks"kkf/dkj gksuk gh pkfg,] tks vkids fy, vko';d izkf/dj.k (Authorization) ij fuhkzj djrk gsa 3. SQL * Loader MkVkcsl,MfefuLVªVj rfkk vkwjsdy ds vu; iz;ksdrk nksuksa SQL*Loader dk mi;ksx djrs gsaa ;g MkVk dks vkwijsfvax fllve dh LVS.MMZ iqkbyksa (tsls VsDLV iqkby ;k C MkVk iqkweszv laca/h iqkby) ls vkwjsdy ds MkVkcsl Vscyksa esa yksm+ djrk gsa vh;kl (Exercise) 1. DBA ds dk;ks± esa OEM dh Hkwfedk crkb;sa 2. OSDBA vksj OSOPER D;k gs\ 3. iklomz iqkby esa iz;ksdrk tksm+us dh izfø;k le>k, A 4. DBA ds dk;ks± dh O;k[;k djsaa 5. DBA ds vf/dkjksa dk o.kzu djsaa 246

247 18 DBA mi;ksfxrk, (DBA Utilities) DBA mi;ksfxrk, bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % iz;ksdrk dk fuekz.k o izcu/u iz;ksdrk fuekz.k iz;ksdrk dks vf/dkj nsuk iz;ksdrk gvkuk VscyLisl dk fuekz.k djuk IMPORT/EXPORT csdvi vksj fjdojh foiqyrk ds dkj.k fjdojh csdvi 18.1 iz;ksdrk fuek.kz,oa izcu/d (Creating & Managing User) ;wtj vdkmuv ds fuekz.k dh izfø;k dks ge vè;k; 10 esa ns[k pqds gsaa bl vè;k; esa ge ;wtj vdkmuv O;oLFkkiu dks fllrkj ls tkusaxsa iz;ksdrk dks vf/dkj nsuk % iz;ksdrk dks MkVkcsl ij fofhkuu vf/dkj nsus ds fy, GRANT funsz'k dk iz;ksx gksrk gsa ;g funsz'k nks izdkj ls iz;ksx gksrk gsa igyk fllve ds vf/dkj nsus ds fy, vksj nwljk vkwctsdv ds vf/dkj nsus ds fy,a bldk fluvsdl bl izdkj gs& GRANT <Privilege_Name> ON <Object> To <User_Name> [Public WITH ADMIN OPTION] WITH ADMIN OPTION dk vfkz gs fd mdr iz;ksdrk pkgs] rks vius vf/dkj,d Administrator dh rjg vu; iz;ksdrk dks Hkh ns ldrk gsa 247

248 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy mnkgj.k % GRANT All ON Hospital TO Vikas, iz;ksdrk gvkuk (Delete User) : iz;ksdrk dks Oracle ls gvkus ds fy, DROP dfku dk iz;ksx gksrk gsa ;g dfku u fliqz iz;ksdrk dks cfyd mlds Schema es a cus lhkh vkwctsdv o muls tqm+ s lhkh lecu/ gvk ldrk gs ftlds fy, 'CASCADE' dh omz dk iz;ksx gksrk gs ftldk fluvsdl bl izdkj gsa DROP USER <User_Name> <CASCADE> mnkgj.k % DROP USER Vikas; ;g dfku Vikas uke ds iz;ksdrk dks gvk nsrk gsa 18.2 TABLE SPACE dk fuekz.k djuk (Creating Table Space) DBA dk nwljk izeq[k dk;z gksrk gs Tablespace vksj MkVkcsl dk fuekz.k djuka ge tkurs gsa fd DATABASE cukus ds fy, CREATE DATABASE dk iz;ksx djrs gsaa Tablespace, Database ds MkVk dk rkfdzd laxzg gksrk gsa DBA blds }kjk fueufyf[kr egùoiw.kz dk;z dj ldrk gs& 1- Database ds MkVk ds LFkku vkaovu ij fu;a=k.ka 2- iz;ksdrk dks LFkku vkoavua 3- MkVk dks Online o Offline djuka 4- Partial Back o Recovery djuka tc Hkh dksbz MkVkcsl cuk;k tkrk gs rks,d System Tablespace Lor% gh cu tkrk gs vksj ;fn vyx ls Tablespace u cuk;k x;k gks] rks lhkh vkwctsdv vksj iz;ksdrk System Tablespace eas gh lafpr gksrs gsaa CREAT TABLESPACE : Tablespace ds fuekz.k ds fy, CREATE funzs'k dks mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] ftldk fluvsdl bl izdkj gs & CREATE [TEMPORARY] TABLESPACE <Tblspc_Name> {DATAFILE/TEMPFILE} <File_Path> [AUTOEXTEND OFF/ON NEXT <VALUE>] [MAXSIXE {<Size> / UNLIMITED}] [LOGGING/NO LOGGING] [ONLINE/OFFLINE] DEFAULT STORAGE ([INITIAL <Size>] [NEXT <Size>] [MINEXTENTS <NO.>] [MAXEXTENTS <NO.>] [PCTENCREASE <NO>] [FREELISTS <NO.>] [BUFFERPOOL <Pool_Name> [DEFAULT]/[KEEP/RECYCLE]]) [MINIMUM EXTENT <NO.>] [EXTENT MANAGEMENT DICTIONARY/LOCAL [AUTOALLOCATE/UNIFORM [SIZE <NO.>]] [CHUNK <NO.>] [NOCACHE] fluvsdl esa iz;qdr 'kcn o muds vfkz % TEMPORARY : ;g crkrk gs fd cuk;k tk jgk Tablespace vlfkkbz gs vksj mldk iz;ksx vlfkkbz MkVk dks lafpr djus ds fy, gksrk gsa DATAFILE : ;g Tablespace ds fuekz.k esa iz;qdr Datafile dk LFkku crkrk gsa 248 AUTOEXTEND : ;g Datafile ds Lor% iqsyko dh lwpuk nsrk gsa ;fn bls ON j[kk tk, rks Next vksj MAXSIZE dk eku 'kwu; gks tkrk gsa vksj bls OFF j[kus ij Next esa eseksjh dk lkbt vkrk

249 gs ftldk iz;ksx] Extent dh t:jr im+us ij] gksrk gsa MAXSIZE esa Datafile dk vf/dre Size fy[kk tkrk gsa LOGGING/NOLOGGING : ;g UNDO/REDO ykwx (Log) cukus dh lwpuk nsrk gsa ;fn NOLOGGENG dks pquk tk, rks dksbz UNDO/REDO ykwx ugha curha DEFAULT STORAGE : VscyLisl ds vkwctsdvl ds fy, fu/kzfjr lap; uhfr nsrk gsa DBA mi;ksfxrk, INITIAL : ;g vkwctsdv ds igys Extent dk vkdkj (Size) crkrk gsa NEXT : ;g vkwctsdv ds vxys Extent dk vkdkj crkrk gsa MINEXTENTS : ;g Extent dh U;wure la[;k crkrk gsa MAXEXTENTS : ;g vkwctsdv ds fy, vf/dre Extents dh la[;k crkrk gsa PCTINCREASE : ;g crkrk gs fd 'kq:vkrh vksj vxys Extent ds ckn ds Extent dk Size fdruk c<+k;k tk ldrk gsa FREELISTS : ;g Tablespace ds vykok vu; vkwctsdvl ds fy, FREELIST dh la[;k crkrk gsa BUFFER-POOL : ;g vkwctsdv dks Cache djus dk LFkku crkrk gsa EXTENT MANAGEMENT : ;g Extent dh O;oLFkk n'kkzrk gs fd og Dictionary vk/kfjr gs ;k LOCAL A CHUNK : ;g LOB lap; LFkku ds ckjs esa lwpuk nsrk gsa NOCACHE : ;g crkrk gs fd VscyLisl ds fdlh Hkh vkwctsdv dks Cache (ds'k) uk fd;k tk,a mnkgj.k % CREATE TABLESPACE HOSPITAL DATAFILE 'HOSP.DAT' SIZE 10M DEFAULT STORAGE (INITIAL 20K, NEXT 100K MINEXTENTS 1, MAXEXTENTS 999, PCT INCREASE 10), bl izdkj DBA, Tablelpace dk fuekz.k dj ldrk gsa 18.3 MkVk dks beiksvz@,dliksvz djuk (Importing/Exporting Data) ;g dk;z Hkh DBA ds fy, cgqr vge gsa IMPORT/EXPORT }kjk DBA, vkwjsdy ds fofhkuu MkVkcslksa esa vkwctsdv dk vknku iznku djrk gsa ;g vknku iznku lkwývos;j o gkmzos;j ij fuhkzj ugha djrka EXPORT : ;g MkVkcsl ls vkwctsdv dks nwljs LFkku ij Hkstus ds fy, iz;ksx gksrk gsa bl izfø;k esa vkwctsdv dks,d ckbujh iqkby esa cnydj dei;wvj usvodz dh lgk;rk ls u, LFkku ij Hkstk tkrk gsa EXPORT, iqkby cukrs le;,d vkwctsdv vksj mlls tqm+s lhkh vkwctsdv~l dks igys,d lkfk j[krk gs] fiqj nwljs vkwctsdv dks mbkrk gsa vkwctsdv dks rhu izdkj ls Export fd;k tk ldrk gs& Table Lrj % bl Export esa DBA fdlh Hkh Vscy dks pqudj mls o mlls tqm+s vkwctsdv dks Hkst ldrk gsa User Lrj % blesa,d iz;ksdrk ls tqm+s lhkh vkwctsdvl dks Export fd;k tkrk gsa Full Lrj % blesa MkVkcsl ds lhkh vkwctsdvl dks Export fd;k tkrk gsa 249

250 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 250 Export djus ds fy, GUI (xzkfiqdy ;wtj bavjiqsl) vksj dekam ykbu nksuksa dk gh iz;ksx gks ldrk gsa GUI ds fy, Start Oracle Enterprise Manager Database Tools Export ds }kjk Export window [kksyh tk ldrh gsa ijurq ge dekamykbu dk iz;ksx djsaxs D;ksfd iqjkus laldj.k esa ;gh iz;ksx gksrk FkkA Export djus ds fy, EXP. EXE dk iz;ksx gksrk gs ftls fofhkuu Parameter fn, tk ldrs gsa tks bl izdkj gsa& <USER ID> iz;ksdrk dk uke o Password FILE = <file> vkmviqv iqkby dk uke] ftldh Extension. DMP gksrh gsa COMPRESS = {Y/N} gk ds fy, 'Y' o ugha ds fy, 'N' GRANTS = {Y/N} vkf/dkj nsus ds fy,a INDEXES = {Y/N} INDEX, Export djus ds fy,a ROW = {Y/N} MkVk dks iafdr nj iafdr Export djus ds fy,a CONSTRAINTS = {Y} fu;kedksa dks Export djus ds fy, LOG vkmviqv File, Screen ij fn[kkus ds fy,a FILESZE = (<Size>) Export gks jgh iqkby dk vf/dre Sixe A QUERY = (>query>) Table ds,d mileqpp; dks Exprot djus ds fy,a FULL = {Y/N} iwjh iqkby dks Export djus ds fy, OWNER = <owner> Export gks jgs vkwctsdv ds OWNER iz;ksdrk dk uke iznf'kzr djus ds fy,a] TABLES = (<table_naem>) Export dh tkus okyh tables dh lwph ds fy,a PARFILE = <parameter_file> ml iqkby dk uke crkus ds fy, ftlesa EXP. ds fy, Pqramiter djus ds fy,a mnkgj.k % EXP Vikas/Sukhija GRANTS = Y Tables = (User, Perron); User Lrj mnkgj.k % EXP Vikas/Sukhija FILE = Vukas, dmp OWNER = Vikas; FULL Lrj mnkgj.k % EXP Vikas/Sukhija FULL = Y GRANTS = Y ; IMPORT : ;g EXPORT izfø;k dk O;qRØe gksrk gs] ftlesa EXPORT }kjk Hksth xbz iqkby ls MkVkcsl ds vkwctsdv ikir fd, tkrs gsaa IMPORT esa vkwctsdv bl Øe esa IMPORT gksrs gsa& rkfydk ifjhkk"kk] Index, fu;ked] n`';] Procedure vkfna lcls igys rkfydk cukbz tkrh gs] fiqj blesa MkVk Mkyk tkrk gs] mlds ckn Index cuk, tkrs gsaa fiqj fu;ked vksj Trigger yxk, tkrs gsaa vkwctsdv dks rhu izdkj ls IMPORT fd;k tk ldrk gs& Vscy Lrj % fdlh iz;ksdrk dh dqn fo'ks"k rkfydkvksa dks Import djus ds fy, bldk iz;ksx djrs gsaa iz;ksdrk Lrj : bl Lrj ij fdlh iz;ksdrk ds lhkh vkwctsdv dks IMPORT fd;k tkrk gsa Full Lrj % ;g fdlh MkVkcsl ds lhkh vkwctsdvl dks IMPORT djus ds fy, iz;ksx gksrk gsa dekamykbu ij IMPORT djus ds fy, IMP.EXE dk iz;ksx gksrk gs ftlesa fueufyf[kr Parameter fn, tkrs gsaa <USER ID> ;g iz;ksdrk dk uke o Password nsrk gsa

251 FILE = <file> SHOW = {Y/N} IGNORE = {Y/N} GRANTS = {Y/N} INDESES = {Y/N} ROWS = {Y/N} LOG = {Y/N} DESTORY = {Y/N} INDEXFILE = <file> SKIP_UNUSABLE_JNDEX = {Y/N} ANALYZE = {Y/N} FILESIZE = <Size> FULL = {Y/N} FORMUSER =<Users> TABLES = <tables> PARFILE = <Parameter file> ;g IMPORT ds fy, Inport file dk uke nsrk gsa ;g iqkby ds vd;o fn[kkrk gsa fuekz.k =kqfv;ksa dks utj vankt djus ds fy, iz;ksx gksrk gsa ;g vf/dkjksa dks IMPORT djus ds fy, iz;ksx gksrk gsa Indexes ds Import ds fy, MkVk dh iafdr;ksa dks Import djus ds fy,a ;g vkmviqv dh ykwx iqkby cukrk gsa ;g Tablespace dh MkVk iqkby dks fiqj ls cukrk gsa ml file dk uke ftlesa Table ds Index fy[ks tkus gsaa iz;ksx gks jgs Indexes dks skip djus ds fy,a ;g iqkby Dump es a ANALYZE funs Z'k yxkrk gsa ;g fdlh Hkh iqkby dk vf/dre size crkrk gsa iwjh iqkby,d lkfk Import djrk gsa mu iz;ksdrkvksa ds uke ftuds vkwctsdv Import gks jgs gsaa mu rkfydkvksa dh lwfp nsrk gs ftuesa Import gks jgk gsa ml iqkby dk uke nsrk gs fllesa lhkh Parameter j[ks x, gsaa DBA mi;ksfxrk, mnkgj.k % IMP Vikas/Sukhija IGNORE = Y TABLES = User; bl izdkj MkVkcsl ds fofhkuu vkwctsdvl dks IMPORT vksj EXPORT fd;k tkrk gsa 18.4 MkVkcsl dk csdvi vksj fjdojh (Database Back-up & Recovery) gj MkVkcsl iz.kkyh es a fllve ;k gkmzos;j ds foiqy gksus dh lahkkouk gksrh gsa vxj blls MkVkcsl dk MkVk ;k lajpuk izhkkfor gks rks DBA dk dùkzo; curk gs fd og MkVkcsl dh iqu% izkfir djsa fdlh Hkh foiqyrk ds ckn ;g t:jh gks tkrk gs fd fjdojh izfø;k tynh ls tynh MkVkcsl dks Bhd djs vksj iz;ksdrk dks fcuk fdlh ijs'kkuh ds MkVk lqyhk djk ldsa ijurq] igys ;g le>uk vko';d gs fd MkVkcsl es a fdu dkj.kks a ls foiqyrk gks ldrh gsa foiqyrk ds dkj.k % vkwjsdy ds MkVkcsl dks foiqy djus ds fy, cgqr lh ifjflfkfr;k fteesnkj gks ldrh gsaa blesa ls dqn dk fooj.k uhps fn;k x;k gsa MkVkcsl lecfu/r =kqfv;k % iz;ksdrk =kqfv % ;g =kqfv iz;ksdrk }kjk fn, x, fdlh dfku ;k funsz'k ds fø;kuo;u ls mriuu gks ldrh gsa mnkgj.k ds fy, iz;ksdrk dqn,slk MkVk] MkVkcsl ls fevk ns] tks MkVkcsl dh Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- ç;ksùkqk ËqfV D;k gksrk gs\ 2- fu;uë.k iqkby ds D;k dk;z gsa \ 3- fllve csdvi D;k gksrk gs \ 251

252 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 252 lajpuk ds fy, cgqr gh egùkoiw.kz gksa bl ifjflfkfr esa MkVkcsl dks fliqz ml flfkfr rd Recover djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa] tc =kqfv ugha gqbz FkhA bl ifjflfkfr ls fuivus ds fy, vkwjsdy MkVkcsl dks funsz'k ds Execute gksus ls igys dh flfkfr esa igq pus dh lqfo/k nsrk gsa?kks"k.kkvksa ;k izfø;k dk foiqy gksuk % dhkh dhkh dh xbz?kks"k.kk, Hkh foiqy gks tkrh gsa] tc vkwjsdy nh xbz?kks"k.kk ds fy, rkfdzd :i ls dksbz os/ SQL lajpuk cukus esa vlefkz jgrk gsa bl ifjflfkfr esa vkwjsdy Lor% gh mriuu gq, izhkkoksa dks fujlr djrk gs vksj fu;a=k.k iqu% iz;ksdrk dks ns nsrk gsa izfø;k dk foiqy gksuk Hkh MkVkcsl dh foiqyrk dk dkj.k cu ldrk gsa mnkgj.k ds fy, eku yhft, dksbz iz;ksdrk lozj ls dksbz izfø;k Execute dj jgk gsa vksj vpkud gh usvodz esa xm+cm+ dh otg ls client dk lecu/ lozj ls VwV tkrk gsa vksj izfø;k vizr;kf'kr :i ls fdlh Hkh flfkfr esa foiqy gks tkrh gsa bl ifjflfkfr esa vkwjsdy dh Background Processes eq[; Hkwfedk fuhkkrh gsaa PMON (Process Monitor) uked izfø;k Lor% gh iz;ksdrk dh foiqy gqbz izfø;k dks <wa<rh gs ;k fiqj lwpuk bls SQL* NET ls izkir gksrh gsa PMON lel;k dk funku djus ds fy, mu lhkh Transections dks Rollback dj nsrh gs] tks vhkh iw.kz ugha gqbz Fkh vksj izfø;k }kjk iz;ksx gks jgs Resource dks Lora=k dj nsrh gsa lcls egùoiw.kz ckr ;g gs fd PMON ;k vu; fdlh Recovery lsok dk vlj iwjs MkVkcsl ij u im+s vksj MkVkcsl ds ckdh Hkkx vksj iz;ksdrk bu lel;kvksa ls vufhkk jgsaa Hardware lecfu/r =kqfv;ka laxzg ekè;e =kqfv % tc ges a fdlh izfø;k ds fy, veqd iqkby dh t:jr gks vksj be mls i<+us ;k mles a dqn fy[kus es a vlefkz gks a D;ks afd og iqkby [kqys gh ughaa bl =kqfv dk dkj.k Secondary Memory dk foiqy gksuk gsa Secondary Memory vfkkzr~ Hard Disk ds foiqy gksus ds dbz Mechanical dkj.k gks ldrs gs a] tsls fmld dk gsm ØS'k gksuk ;k Disk ij Bad Sector vkuk br;kfna ;g lcls gkfudkjd flfkfr gksrh gs] ftles a ykwx iqkby vksj fu;a=k.k lwpukvks a ls ysdj iwjk MkVkcsl rd foiqy gks ldrk gs aa bl ifjflfkfr ds fy, MkVkcsl dh csdvi izfr dk blrseky fd;k tkrk gsa {kf.kd foiqyrk % ;g foiqyrk rc mriuu gksrh gs] tc dksbz lel;k iz.kkyh dh lsokvksa esa ck/k Mkyrh gsa bldk izeq[k dkj.k gkmzos;j ;k lkwývos;j esa =kqfv gks ldrs gsa ;k fiqj dei;qvj fllve dk iqsy gksuk gksrk gsa bl flfkfr esa Buffers dk MkVk] MkVk iqkbyksa esa ugha fy[kk tkrka bu fofhkuu =kqfv;kasa ls cpus ds fy, vkwjsdy dbz lajpukvksa] iqkbyksa vksj lsokvksa }kjk DBA dh lgk;rk djrk gsa tks bl izdkj gsaa Recovery esa lgk;d lajpuk, Redo ykwx % ;g mu iqkbyks a dk lewg gs tks MkVkcsl es a ifjofrzr gks jgs MkVk dh j{kk djrh gs aa bles a eseksjh es a flfkr mu lhkh ifjorzuks a dh tkudkjh gksrh gs ftugs a vhkh rd MkVk iqkby es a fy[kk ugha x;k gs Redo ykwx ds nks Hkkx gksrs gs a& vkwuykbu Redo ykwx vksj Written Redo ykwxa Online Redo ykwx % blesa nks ;k nks ls vf/d iqkbyksa dks lewg gksrk gs ftlesa] comment fd, gq, vksj ftugsa comment djuk gs] nksuksa izdkj ds ifjorzu vafdr fd, tkrs gsaa lhkh ykwx lwpukvksa dks igys ykwx Buffer esa j[kk tkrk gs] ftls ckn esa Background lsok LGWR }kjk Online Redo Log esa fy[kk tkrk gsa ykwx dh iqkbysa,d pø esa iz;ksx dh tkrh gsaa vfkkzr~ igys,d ykwx iqkby Hkjh tkrh gs] fiqj nwljh vksj rhljh bl izdkj tc lhkh iqkbysa Hkj tkrh gsa] rks fiqj ls igyh IkQkby dks ykwx fy[kus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa fdlh,d ykwx ds foiqy gksus ds Hk; ds dkj.k Online Redo Log dh vusd izfr;k Hard Disk ij j[kh tkrh gsa tc Hkh eq[; ykwx esa dksbz ifjorzu gksrk gs rks izfr;ksa esa Hkh ogh ifjorzu dj fn;k tkrk gsa

253 Written Redo Log : ;s,sfpnd ykwx gksrh gs a] ftudk iz;ksx fdlh Online Redo ykwx dks nqckjk iz;ksx djrs le; mues a ekstwn MkVk dks lafpr j[kus ds fy, gksrk gsa bu iqkbyks a dks cukus ds fy, ykwx dks ARCHIVELOT Mode es a fy[kuk gksrk gsa ;fn NOARCHIVELOG MODE dk iz;ksx gks rks Written Redo log fy[ks fcuk gh Online ykwx dks Overwrite dj fn;k tkrk gsa ;fn ARCHIVELOG Mode dk iz;ksx gks rks iwjs MkVkcsl ds foiqy gksus ij Hkh mls iqu% izkir fd;k tk ldrk gsa Written Redo ykwx dk iz;ksx] DBA csdvi cukus ds fy, Hkh dj ldrs gs aa fu;a=k.k iqkby % bu iqkbyksa eas MkVkcsl dks fu;af=kr djus dh lwpuk, j[kh tkrh gsa tsls iqkbyksa dh lajpuk] ykwx dk Øe br;kfna budk iz;ksx Recovery ds le;,d Øfed fodkl ikus esa gksrk gsa budh Hkh izfr;k Disk esa j[kh tkrh gsa] ftugsa eq[; izfr ds Update gksus ij Update fd;k tkrk gsa Rollback Segment : bl Hkkx esa Rollback ls lecfu/r lhkh ykwx j[kh tkrh gsa ftudk iz;ksx Recovery ds le; iw.kz :i ls Commit uk gq, ifjorzuksa dks Rollback djus esa gksrk gsa Rollback dh LkHkh lwpuk, MkVkcsl ds Buffer esa j[kh tkrh gsa blfy, Redo ykwx budh Hkh j{kk djrk gsa MkVkcsl csdvi % gkmzos;j foiqyrk tsls fd fmld gsm ØS'k dh flfkfr esa fjdojh vlehko gksrh gsa blfy,,slh ifjflfkfr;ksa ls fuivus ds fy, fjdojh lwpukvksa dk iz;ksx djrs gq, MkVkcsl dk csdvi ysuk vr;ar vko';d gksrk gs] rkfd MkVkcsl dh lwpukvksa dks cpk;k tk ldsa,slk djus ds fy, nks izdkj ds csdvi dk iz;ksx gksrk gsa fllve csdvi % bl csdvi esa MkVkcsl dh gj olrq tsls Tables, ykwx] MkVkiQkby] fu;a=k.k iqkby vkfn] lcdk csdvi fy;k tkrk gsa iwjs fllve dk csdvi ysus ds fy, DBA dks MkVkcsl o mlls lecfu/r lhkh lsok, can djuh im+rh gsa vksj csdvi dks vu; iz;ksdrkvksa dh igq p ls ckgj j[kuk im+rk gsa vk f'kd csdvi % ;g MkVkcsl ds fdlh Hkkx fo'ks"k dk csdvi gksrk gs] ftles a MkVkIkQkby ;k fu;a=k.k iqkby dk csdvi fy;k tk ldrk gsa vkaf'kd csdvi ARCHIVELOG MODE es a gh vf/d izhkkoh gks ldrs gs aa blds fy, MkVkcsl dks can djus dh vko';drk Hkh ugha gksrha DBA mi;ksfxrk, lkjka'k (Summary) u, iz;ksdrk ds fuekz.k ds fy, CREATE USER funzs'k dk iz;ksx gksrk gsa iz;ksdrk dks GRANT ds }kjk MkVkcsl vkwctsdvl ij vf/dkj fn;k tkrk gsa Tablespace MkVkcsl ds MkVk dks rkfdzd laxzg gksrk gsa vkwjsdy esa MkVk dks IMPORT/EXPORT djus ds fy, Built in lqfo/k, gksrh gsa csdvi MkVkcsl ds MkVk dh Compressed izfr gksrh gsa vkwjsdy ds fjdojh iqhpj bls nqfu;k dk lcls Hkjkslsean DBMS cukrs gsa Lo&çxfr tk p ds ç'uksa ds mùkj [Answer to Check your Progress] 1. ;g =kqfv iz;ksdrk }kjk fn, x, fdlh dfku ;k funsz'k ds fø;kuo;u ls mriuu gks ldrh gsa mnkgj.k ds fy, iz;ksdrk dqn,slk MkVk] MkVkcsl ls fevk ns] tks MkVkcsl dh lajpuk ds fy, cgqr gh egùkoiw.kz gksa bl ifjflfkfr esa MkVkcsl dks fliqz ml flfkfr rd Recover djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa] tc =kqfv ugha gqbz FkhA bl ifjflfkfr ls fuivus ds fy, vkwjsdy MkVkcsl dks funsz'k ds Execute gksus ls igys dh flfkfr esa igq pus dh lqfo/k nsrk gsa 253

254 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy 2. bu iqkbyksa eas MkVkcsl dks fu;af=kr djus dh lwpuk, j[kh tkrh gsa tsls iqkbyksa dh lajpuk] ykwx dk Øe br;kfna budk iz;ksx Recovery ds le;,d Øfed fodkl ikus esa gksrk gsa budh Hkh izfr;k Disk esa j[kh tkrh gsa] ftugsa eq[; izfr ds Update gksus ij Update fd;k tkrk gsa 3. bl csdvi esa MkVkcsl dh gj olrq tsls Tables, ykwx] MkVkiQkby] fu;a=k.k iqkby vkfn] lcdk csdvi fy;k tkrk gsa iwjs fllve dk csdvi ysus ds fy, DBA dks MkVkcsl o mlls lecfu/r lhkh lsok, can djuh im+rh gsa vksj csdvi dks vu; iz;ksdrkvksa dh igq p ls ckgj j[kuk im+rk gsa vh;kl (Exercise) 1- vkwjsdy esa u, iz;ksdrk dsls cuk, tkrs gsa vksj mugsa MkVkcsl vkwctsdvl ij dsls vf/dkj fn, tkrs gsa\ 2- Tablespace ds fuekz.k esa DBA dks fdu ckrksa dks è;ku j[kuk pkkfg,a 3- vkwjsdy esa EXPORT ds fdrus izdkj gksrs gsa \ izdk'k MkysaA 4- csdvi vksj fjdojh esa D;k varj gs\ folrkjiwozd le>k, A 254

255 19 vkwjsdy vfxze lqj{kk mik; (Oracle Advance Security Features) vkwjsdy vfxze lqj{kk mik; bl vè;k; esa lfeefyr gsa % vkwjsdy vxz.kh lqj{kk O;oLFkk ifjp; iz;ksx,mfefulvªsfvo VwYl vkwjsdy usv esustj 19.1 vkwjsdy vxz.kh lqj{kk O;oLFkk%,d ifjp; (Introduction to Oracle Advance Security) ;g vè;k; vkwjsdy vfxze lqj{kk dk ifjp; iznku djrk gs] rfkk lqj{kk nkf;roksa dks lfeefyr djrk gsa MkVkcsl esa fueu fo'ks"krk, gksrh gsaa bu fo'ks"krkvksa esa Oracle Net Services, Oracle Database, Oracle Application Server rfkk Oracle Identity Management infrastructure 'kkfey gsaa bl vè;k; ij fueufyf[kr 'kh"kzdksa dk vè;;u fd;k tk;sxkμ vkwjdy laxbu okrkoj.k esa lqj{kk dh pquksfr;k A vkwjdy Advanced Security ds ekè;e ls lqj{kk dh pquksfr;ksa dks gy djuka 255

256 a a vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy vkwjdy Advanced Security Architecture lqj{kk dh pquksfr;ksa dks gy djuka Network Protocol lhekvksa ij MkVk glrkurj.k fuf'pr djuka System dh vko';drk, A vkwjsdy fodflr lqj{kk izfrcu/ dh lhekvksa dk Hkh vè;;u djsaxsa ,UVjizkb k okrkoj.k esa lqj{kk pquksfr;k (Security Challenges in an Enterprise Environment) dk;z oqq'kyrk (efficiency) rfkk U;wure ewy; o`f¼ osq fy, deiuh us O;olk; izfozq;k ds Lopyu dk;z iz.kkyh dks xzg.k fd;k gsa,d,slh dk;ziz.kkyh gs] tks osc (web) ij dbz O;olkvks dks lapkfyr djrh gsa ijurq blosq fy, cm+h 'kfdr (computing power) dh vko';drk gksrh gs] tks mpp dher ij vuqokfnr djrh gsa IT ewy; ds mrfkku oqh izfrfozq;k es a] vf/d ls vf/ d O;olk; dks Enterprise Grid x.kukred lajpuk (Computing architecture) dks è;ku es j[kdj fø;kfuor fd;k tkrk gs] tgk llrk dei;wvj,d 'kfdr'kkyh ra=k (system) osq :i es a dk;z djrk gsa tcfd,slh ;kstuk bottom line dh o`f¼ djrh gsa ;s [krjks a ls ifjfpr djkrk gs tks xfr'khy MkVk dks lqjf{kr djus rfkk iz;ksdrk igpku (user identities) dh fujarj c<+rh gqbz la[;k osq izca/u osq lkfk la;qdr djrk gsa bl [kam es a ge fueu fo"k;ks a ij ppkz djs axsa Enterprise Grid Computing Environment esa Security dh HkwfedkA Intranet ;k Internet environment esa Security dh HkwfedkA Common Security ThreatsA (A),UVjizkbt fxzm dei;wfvax okrkoj.k esa lqj{kk (Enterprise Grid Computing Environment esa Security) ;gk Grid Computing,d,slh x.kukred lajpuk gksrh gs] ftlesa cgqr lkjs lozjksa dk,d lkfk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] bu cgqr lkjs lozjksa dks,d cm+s lozj ds :i esa ekuk tk ldrk gsa ;g yphykiu U;wure ykxr rfkk IT fuos'k lqj{kk iznku djrk gs] pw fd blesa de [kpz gksrk gs] rfkk 'ksyiq (shelf) ds ckgj ds deiksusuv dks ge fxzm esa tksm+ ldrs gsa] tslk dh gesa cnyus dh vko';drk gksrh gs] tc egroiw.kz ykhkksa dks iznku djrs gsaa fxzm computing esa,d lqj{kk vko';drk (unique requirement) feyrh gs] pw fd muds computing fjlkszlsl dks ck Vk x;k gs rfkk izk;% esy ugha [kkrk vfkok csesy (Heterogenous) gksrk gsa ;gk fueufyf[kr fcunqvksa esa Enterprise Grid Computing Environment esa Security dh vko';drk dks crk;k x;k gsa (i) forfjr okrkoj.k esa lqj{kk vko';drk, (Distributed Environment Security Requirements) : ;gk ij Enterprise grid Computing ds }kjk fohkkftr lozj ds okrkoj.k ij dk;z djuk eg xk lkfcr gksrk gsa,oa Distributed environment esa Secure Network Connections dh vko';drk im+rh gsa ;gk ij Server ls data dks access djrs le; izr;sd ;wtj ds fy;s Uniform definition dh t:jr vko';d :i ls im+rh gsa 256 buvjizkbt fxzm dei;wfvax (Enterprises Grid Computing) fohkkftr x.kukred lalk/uksa dks bdv~bk oklrfod ewy; ij djrk gs] rfkk DyLVj lozj rfkk LVksjst dh 'kfdr dks yxkrk gsa,d fohkkftr okrkoj.k (distributed environment) esa lqj{kkred usvodz la;kstu (Secure network connection) dh vko';drk gksrh gsa fxzm okrkoj.k esa ;g tkuuk vko';d gs fd ^^iz;ksdrk dksu gs** rfkk iz;ksdrk D;k djus dh vkkk nsrk gs] bldks ifjhkkf"kr djrk gsa bl izdkj

257 osq,d leku ifjhkk"kk osq fcuk],mefulvªsvj gh nwjlfk iz;ksdrk ds fy, manage rfkk vuqeksfnr fofhkuu lkwývos;j,fiyds'ku osq fy, djrk gs] rkfd og dezpkjh dk lqj{kk] xzkgd rfkk ikvzuj dh lqpukvksa dh lqj{kk dj ldsa (ii) fo[ke okrkoj.k esa lqj{kk O;oLFkkiu (Heterogenous Environement Security Requirements) : pw fd] fxzm dei;qfvax okrkoj.k izk;% rhkh c<+rk gs] tc O;olkf;d vko';drkvksa esa cnyko vkrk gsa rc le; ds lkfk&lkfk x.kukredrk tqm+rkh pyh tkrh gsa ftldk ifj.kke] gkmzos;j rfkk lkwývos;j dk vleku lewg gksrk gsa okrkoj.k esa fofhkuu izdkj dh izek.khdj.k izfozq;k (authentication mechanism) dks lefkzu djus dh vko';drk gksrh gsa rc m ksx ekudksa (industry standard) dk dm+k vuqikyu o lefuor fotkrh; deiksusuv dks,dhñr djuk eg xk im+rk gs rfkk vr;f/d le; ysrk gsa ;fn mfpr vk/kjeqdr lajpuk miyc/ ugha gks rks fxzm dei;wfvax ds ykhk dks fiqj ls xok fn;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy vfxze lqj{kk mik; (B) buvªkusv ;k buvjusv okrkoj.k esa lqj{kk O;oLFkk (Security in Intranet & Internet Environment) vkwjsdy MkVkcsl fo'kky rfkk vr;kf/d yksdfiz; osclkbv ds fy, 'kfdr iznku djrk gsa la[;kvksa dks fjdkmz djus esa iwjs fo'o ds laxbuksa ds fy, DykbUV@loZj,Iyhds'ku] tks fd oracle Database rfkk oracle net services ij vkèkkfjr gksrk gs] blosq forfjr MkVkcsl dks fu;ksftr djrk gsa forfjr dei;wfvax dh izpqjrk dks laxbuksa }kjk dei;wvjksa esa j[kh xbz lwpuk dh ek=kk esa o`f¼ ls esy djk;k tkrk gsa Employee rfkk financial records, customer order, product information rfkk vu; laosnu'khy MkVk dks iqkbfyax dsfcusv ls iqkby LVªDpj esa LFkkukurfjr dj fn;k tkrk gsa buvjusv ij rfkk Wide Area Network okrkoj.k esa nksuksa public carriers rfkk Private Networks vlqjf{kr ys.m ykbu ls Route djrs gsaa ;gk Intranet vksj Internet vkfn dh ifjflfkfr;ksa esa Oracle database dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;gk ij vusd website dks lafpr djds j[kk tkrk gsa ;gk ij distributed database dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] ftlls vf/dre ek=kk esa lwpukvksa dks lkf>r fd;k tkrk gs],slh ifjflfkfr;ksa esa Hkh Oracle database system ds }kjk lqj{kk O;oLFkk iznku dh tkrh gsa (C) lkeku; lqj{kk [krjs (Common Security threats) forfjr fd, x, MkVk ds c<+k, x, ifjek.k dh flfkfr esa MsVk dh lqj{kk O;oLFkk djuk,d cm+h pquksrh gksrh gsa ftlesa fueufyf[kr fcunqvksa dks lfeefyr fd;k tk ldrk gsμ Eavesdropping and data Theft Data Tempering Falsifying User Indentities Password- Related Threats (i) Eavesdropping vksj Data Theft (Eavesdropping & Data Theft) : ;gk Computer Networks dks Local Area Network vksj Wide Area Network ds vurxzr Public Carriers rfkk Private Network br;kfn dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blds Network esa ekè;e gsrq microwave vksj Satellite fyad br;kfn dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa blesa vf/dka'k Server dk 257

258 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy iz;ksx Hkh lfeefyr gksrk gsa,slh ifjflfkfr;ksa esa Data dh Security Hkh vko';d gks tkrh gsa (ii) MkVk glr{ksi (Data Tampering) : forfjr okrkoj.k (Distributed enviroments), lahkor% fo}s"kiw.kz rhljs i{k ds le>ksdr MkVk osq lkfk glr{ksi dj lqlolfk djrk gs] tc ;g lkbv osq eè; LFkku ifjorzu djrk gsa (iii) v;kfkfkz ;wtj igpku (Falsifying User identities) : forfjr okrkoj.k esa ;g vf/d iz;qdr gksrk gs] rfkk ;g iz;ksdrk dh,d igpku dk xyr :i izlrqr djrk gs] tks laosn'khy lwpukvksa dks,dlsl djus esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vki fdl izdkj lqfuf'pr djrs gsa foq iz;ksdrk 'Pat' dk la;kstu DykbaV B osq lozj A osq lkfk gqvk gs] ftlesa iz;ksdrk 'Pat' gs \ blosq vfrfjdr fohkkftr okrkoj.kksa esa vijkf/d izo`fùk osq yksx la;kstu dks gkbtsd dj ldrs gsaa vki fdl izdkj lqfuf'pr dj ldrs gs a fd Client B rfkk Server A ogh gs] ftudk og nkok djrs gs aa,d transaction, ftls lozj A osq dkfezd fllve ls lozj B osq is&jksy (Payroll) fllve rd tkus okys transaction dks jklrs esa gh cf/r fd;k tk ldrk gs] rfkk lozj B ds Nn~e :i esa iqu% Hkstk tkrk gsa (iv) Password - Related Threats :,d cm+s fllve esa] iz;ksxdùkkzvksa ds }kjk cgqr lkjs iklomz dks fofhkuu,iyhds'ku ds fy;s ;kn j[kuk im+rk gsa mnkgj.k ds fy;s] ;gk ij,d Msoysij ds }kjk,d workstation ij,iyhds'ku ds fodkl dk,dlsl gks ldrk gsa,d PC ds }kjk dks Hkstus dk dk;z vu; dei;wvjksa vfkok buvjkusv lkbv for testing reporting bug rfkk configuration izca/u esa lgk;rk djrk gsa buvjkusv dks tk pus br;kfn ls lecfu/r vusd dk;ks± dks fd;k tkrk gsa ;wtj,d ls vf/d iklomz ds j[kj[kko esa lel;kvksa dks gy djus ds fy, fueu rjhds viukrk gsa ;gk iklomz dk vklkuh ls vuqeku yxk;k tk ldrk gs] tsls fd uke],d Fictional character ;k 'kcn tks fd 'kcndks'k esa ik;k tkrk gs],slh lkjh lahkkouk, iklomz dk vuqeku yxkus esa vfr&laosnu'khy gks ldrh gsaa tfvy iklomz dks iz;ksdrk fy[k ldrs gsa rfkk ml iklomz dks fdlh vkøe.kdkjh ds }kjk vklkuh ls izkir fd;k tk ldrk gsa vr%,slh ifjflfkfr;ksa ls fuivus ds fy;s Hkh iklomz dh t:jr im+rh gsa vkwjsdy,mokul fld;ksfjvh ds }kjk lqj{kk dks O;ofLFkr djuk (Managing Security with Oracle Advanced Security) buvjizkbt dei;wfvax dh lqj{kk lel;kvksa dks gy djds Oracle Advanced Security, bumlvªh LVS.MMZ v/kfjr MkVk lqj{kk iznku djrh gs ftlds vurxzr lqj{kk dh n`f"v ls Data Privacy, Integrity, Authentication, Single sign-on rfkk vuqeksnu dks,dlsl djus ds fofhkuu rjhdksa dks crk;k x;k gsa mnkgj.k ds rksj ij vki MkVk dh xksiuh;rk ds fy, Oracle Net native bfuøii'ku vfkok Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) dk la:i.k djrs gsa] vkwjsdy fodflr lqj{kk vu; 'kfdr 'kkyh izek.khdj.k fof/ ds p;u dks iznku djrh gsa ;gk lqj{kk ds vu; mik;ksa esa kerberos, smart cards rfkk digital certificates vkfn dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Oracle fodflr lqj{kk ds }kjk fueufyf[kr lqj{kk y{k.kksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 258 Supported Encryption Algorithm

259 Federal Information Processing Standerd (a) MkVk bfuøi'ku (Data Encryption) ;fn database esa laosnu'khy lwpukvksa dks lafpr djds j[kk tkrk gs vfkok lwpukvksa dks Network ds ekè;e ls fofhkuu LFkkuksa ij igq pk;k tkrk gs] rks Internet dks bfuøi'ku,yxksfjn~e ds }kjk lqjf{kr fd;k tkrk gsa,d bfuøi'ku,yxksfjne lwpukvksa dks ml :i esa cnyrk gs] ftlls mldk vfkz ugha fudkyk tk ldrk gsa mnkgj.k ds fy;s] ;fn,d esustj bonus dks vuqeksfnr djrk gs] rks bl MsVk dks encrypted dj fn;k tkuk pkfg,] ;fn ml MsVk dks Network ij Hkstk tkrk gsa ;fn DykbUV] MkVkcsl] rfkk,iyhds'ku lozj ds chp lhkh laoknksa dks buøhivsm (entrypted) dj fn;k tkrk gs] rc ;fn izca/d (manager) MkVk csl ds fy, cksul jkf'k dks Hkstrk gs] rks bls lqjf{kr (protecded) dj fn;k tkrk gsa clint, database vksj application server ds chp esa izlkfjr fd;k tkrk gs] vksj mls protected dj fn;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy vfxze lqj{kk mik; bl Hkkx esa fueufyf[kr 'kh"kzdksa ds ckjs esa vè;;u fd;k tkrk gsa Supported Eneryption Algorithms Data Integrity Federal Information processing Standard (i),fuøi'ku,yxksfjn~e (Supperted encryption Algorithms) : Oracle fodflr lqj{kk (Oracle Advanced Security) fueufyf[kr buozqhi'ku,yxksfjne dks usvodz MkVk izlkj (Network data transmission) dh xksiuh;rk dks lqjf{kr djus osq fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa RC4 buozqhi'ku DES buozqhi'ku Triple - DES Encryption Encryption Advanced Encryption Standard ^usvodz buøhi'ku,yxksfjne* dk p;u,d iz;ksdrk duiqhxzs'ku fodyi gksrk gs] tks lqj{kk rfkk izn'kzu ds fofhkuu Lrjksa dk izn'kzu djrk gs rfkk fofhkuu izdkj ds MkVk LFkkukUrj.k ds fy, gksrk gsa ;gk ^vkwjsdy fodflr lqj{kk* ds finys laldj.k rhu izdkj ds editions dh lqfo/k nsrs gsa] tks Domestic, Upgrade rfkk Export gsaa ^vkwjsdy fodflr lqj{kk* dk 10g Release 2(10.2), miyc/ buøhi'ku,yxksfjne rfkk dh k dh yeckbz] tks iwoz esa ek=k?kjsyw laldj.k esa miyc/ 259

260 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy Fkh] og iw.kz deiyhesuv dks j[krk gsa mrikn dks iwoz fu;ksftr djus okys iz;ksdrk fdlh fof'k"v mrikn ds release ds fy,?kjsyq laldj.k dk iz;ksx] editing br;kfn dj ldrs gsaa RC4 Encryption RC4 buøhi'ku ekwm;wy] 'RSA Security 1nc., RC4 buøhi'ku,yxksfjne* dk iz;ksx djrk gsa xksiuh;rk dks cuk, j[krs gq, izr;sd ls'kau ds fy, jsmeyh tfur fd, x, ^dh* lhkh usvodz traffic ds fy, iwjh rjg ls j{kksik; gksrk gsa ftlesa lhkh izdkj ds MkVk Vkbi] SQL dfku rfkk lafpr izkslhtj dkwy rfkk blds ifj.kke lfeefyr gksrs gsaa client, Server vfkok nksuksa blds fy, fuosnu dj ldrs gsa rfkk buøhi'ku module dk iz;ksx MkVk ds lqjf{kr gksus dh xkjuvh nsrk gsa ;gk RC4 algorithm ds fy;s] Oracle ds }kjk buøhi'ku ^dh* (Key) dh yeckbz fuf'pr dh tkrh gs] tks 40-bits, 56-bits, vksj 256-bits dh gks ldrh gsa DES Encryption 'Oracle Advanced Security' ds }kjk 56-bit key encryption algorithm ds U. S. Data Encryption Standard algorithm (DES) dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa rfkk Backword Compatibility ds :i esa 40-bit otzu dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Triple - DES Encryption ;gk Oracle fodflr lqj{kk '3 DES buøhi'ku' dk lefkzu djrk gsa ;g DES algorithm esa rhu Lrjksa (passes) esa message dks encrypt djrk gsa '3 DES' eslst lqj{kk dh mpp fmxzh dks mlosq Performance penalty osq lkfk iznku djrk gsa isuyvh dk ifjek.k izkslslj dh xfr ij fuhkzj djrk gs tks buozqhi'ku dks iznf'kzr djrk gsa dksfmr djus dh xfr izkslslj ij fuhkzj djrh gsa ;gk ekud DES algorithm dh rqyuk esa MsVk dks dksfmr djus dk dk;z fd;k tkrk gsa 3DES, two-key laldj.k esa 112 fcv~l esa miyc/ rfkk three - key laldj.kksa esa 168 bits esa miyc/ gs fdurq mu nksuksa laldj.kksa dks ckgjh cipher Block chainning (CBC) eksm esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Advanced Encryption Standard AES dks National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) ds }kjk vuqeksfnr (approved) fd;k x;k FkkA ;gk AES,d u;k Cryptographic algorithm Satndard gs] ftlls DES dks replace fd;k x;k gsa ;gk AES,d Symmetric Cykd fliqj gksrk gs] tks 128 bits ds MsVk CykWd dks fozq;kfuor dj ldrk gsa Cipher keys ftudh yeckbz 128, 192 rfkk 256 bits gksrh gs] mugs a AES - 128, AES vksj AES dgk tkrk gsa ;gk lhkh rhu laldj.kks a dks Outer - CBC mode es a lapkfyr fd;k tkrk gsa (ii) MkVk v[k.mrk (Data Integrity) : lapjuk transmission ds nksjku MsVk packets dh Integrity dks vk'olr djus ds fy;s] Oracle Advanced Security ds }kjk MDS ;k SHA-1 hashing algorithms dk iz;ksx djrs gq, cryptographically secure messege digest dks generate fd;k tkrk gs rfkk izr;sd lans'k es a 'kkfey djds fdlh usvodz ds vkj&ikj Hkstk tkrk gsa ;gk Data integrity algorithms ds }kjk lqj{kk dh n`f"v ls Data modification, Deleted packets, Replay attacks vkfn dk è;ku j[kk tkrk gsa è;ku jgsμ SHA-1, MD5 ds vis{kk /hek gksrk gs fdurq blds }kjk cm+s lans'k MkbtsLV dks mriuu fd;k tkrk gs] rfkk brute - force Collision vksj inversion attacks br;kfn ls lqj{kk dk è;ku j[kk tkrk gsa 260 (iii) la?kh; lwpuk izfø;k ekud (Federal Information Processing Standard) : U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) ds }kjk lqj{kk Lrj 2 ij Oracle Advanced Security Release dks lr;kfir fd;k tk pqdk gsa

261 fozqivksxzkfiqd ykbczsjh (SSL ds fy;s) tks Oracle MkVkcsl log esas lfeefyr gs] mugsa lqj{kk Lrj 2 ij FIPS ds vurxzr lr;kfir fd;k tk pqdk gsa vkwjsdy vfxze lqj{kk mik; (b) 'kfdr'kkyh izek.khdj.k (Strong Authertication) ;gk ij izek.khdj.k (Authentication) ds ekè;e ls iz;ksxdùkkz dh Hkyh&Hkk fr igpku dh tkrh gsa bldk iz;ksx forfjr okrkoj.k (distributed environment) esa fd;k tkrk gsa blosq fcuk usvodz lqj{kk (Network Security) v/wjh gksrh gsa Password dk iz;ksx lkeku; :i ls izek.khdj.k ds fy, fd;k tkrk gsa ;gk ^Oracle fodflr lqj{kk* ds lkfk 'kfdr'kkyh 'Oracle izek.khdj.k,msivj' dk iz;ksx 'kfdr izek.khdj.k ds fy, fd;k tkrk gs tks fofhkuu rhljs i{k osq izek.khdj.k lsok ds fy, SSL ds lkfk fmftvy certificate dks 'kkfey djds j[krk gsa blesa Digital Cirtificaton ds lkfk esa SQL dks Hkh lfeefyr fd;k tkrk gsa fp=k z;ksdrk izek.khdj.k ds lkfk vkwjdy MkVkcsl dks rhljs i{k ds authentication lozj dks iz;ksx djus ds fy, bulvkul dk la:i.k djrk gs] ;gk Oracle Authentication Adapters ds lkfk esas Strong Authentication dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gsa Strong Authentication with Oracle Authentication Adapters bl Hkkx esa fueufyf[kr 'kh"kzdksa dks j[kk x;k gsa Centralized Authentication vksj Single Sign-On Supported Authentication Methods (i) dsfunzr izek.khdj.k rfkk,dy lkbu&vkwu (Centralized Authentication & Single sign-on) osqunzh; izek.khdj.k ds }kjk iz;ksdrk dks Single Sign-On (SSO) dh lqfoèkk, Hkh nh tkrh gsaa Single Sign-on ds ekè;e ls iz;ksdrk dks Multiple accounts rfkk,fiyds'ku dks Single Password ds lkfk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;gk iz;ksxdùkkz dks dsoy,d ckj login djus dh t:jr im+rh gs rfkk ckn esa og Lor% gh vu; lsokvks ls lecu/ LFkkfir dj ysrk gsa Single Sign-on ds }kjk ;wtj dks,d ls vf/d iklomz dks ;kn j[kus dh vko';drk dks nwj fd;k tkrk gsa How Centralized Network Authentication Works fp=k ds }kjk Centralized Network authentication Service ds iz;ksx dks le>k;k x;k gsa Centralized Network authentication dh izfozq;kvksa dks fueufyf[kr inksa ds vurxzr yk;k x;k gsa 261

262 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy (Network Authentication Service ds }kjk User dks izek.khdj.k) 1.,d iz;ksdrk (DykbUV) ds }kjk authentication services ds fy;s request dh tkrh gs rfkk lwpukvksa dks,d Vksdu ;k iklomz ds :i esa igpku ds fy, Hkstk tkrk gsa 2. ;gk Authentication Server ds ekè;e ls ;wtj dh igpku dks izekf.kr fd;k tkrk gs ;k dgsa ticket pass djrk gs rfkk nqckjk ls Client dh vksj Credentials dks Hkstk tkrk gs] blds vurxzr Expiration time dks Hkh lfeefyr fd;k tkrk gsa 3. ;gk Client ds }kjk bl Credentials dks Oracle server dks Hkstk tkrk gs] rfkk og Database ls lecu/ LFkkfir djus dh request djrk gsa 4. Server ds }kjk Credentials dks authentication ds fy;s authentication Server dh vksj Hkstk tkrk gsa 5. ;fn authentication server ozqhmsuz'k;y dks Lohdkj djrk gs] rc ;g oracle server rfkk iz;ksdrk ds izek.khñr gksus osq fy, lwfpr djrk gsa 6. ;fn izek.khñr lozj credential dks Lohdkj ugha djrk] rc authentication vliqy gks tkrk gs] rfkk service request vlohdkj gks tkrh gsa (ii) leffkzr izek.khdj.k fof/;k (Supported Authentication Methods) : Oracle Advanced Security ds }kjk fueufyf[kr Industry - Standard authentication fof/;ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Kerberos 262 Remote Authentication Dial - In User service (RADIUS)

263 Secure Sockets Layer (With digital certificates) Entrust / PKI Kerberos Oracle Advanced Security Support ds }kjk Kerberos osq fy, vkwjsdy iz;ksxdùkkz ds Centralized authentication rfkk Single sign-on ds ykhkksa dks iznku fd;k tkrk gsa Kerberos,d third - party authentication system gs tks fd Shared Secrets ij Hkjkslk djus dk dk;z djrk gsa blds }kjk third party lqjf{kr Single sign-on {kerk] Centralized Password Stroage, database link authentication vksj enhanced PC security dks iznku fd;k tkrk gsa bu lhkh dk;ks± ds fy;s Kerberos authentication server dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy vfxze lqj{kk mik; Remote Authentication Dial - In User Service (RADIUS) ;gk ij RADIUS,d client / server Security izksvksdkwy gksrk gs] tks fd eksvs rksj ij remote authentication vksj access gsrq tkuk tkrk gsa Oracle Advanced Security iwjk dykbuv@lozj usvodz okrkoj.k esa fdlh fof/ dks iz;ksx djus ds fy, RADIUS izksvksdkwy dks iz;ksx esa yk;k tkrk gsa ;gk RADIUS dks vu; authentication mechanisms ds lkfk esa iz;ksx dj ldrs gas] blds lkfk gh blesa VkWdu dkm~zl vksj LekVZ dkmzl dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa Smart cards RADIUS - Compliant smart card, ozsqfmm dkmz ds leku gkmzos;j fmokbl gksrk gs] ftlds ikl memory rfkk izkslslj gksrs gsaa Token Cards Token Cards dk iz;ksx cgqr lkjh fofhkuu fø;kfof/;ksa dks dk;zdq'ky cukus gsrw iz;ksx esa fy;k tkrk gsa dqn token cards ds }kjk lfozq; :i ls (dynamically),d ckj ds passwords dks iznf'kzr fd;k tkrk gs] tks fd authentication service ds lkfk esa O;ofLFkr fd;k tkrk gsa ;gk token card ds }kjk Password dks Server ls lr;kfir fd;k tkrk gsa vu; VkWdu dkm~zl ds ikl keypad gksrk gs rfkk pquksrh dh izfrfozq;k osq vk/kj ij lapkfyr fd;k tkrk gsa bl dk;z osq djus esa lozj ds }kjk,d pquksrh (,d la[;k osq :i esa) nh tkrh gs] tks fd ;wtj ds }kjk token card esa izos'k djus osq fy, gksrh gs] tks fd ;wtj ds }kjk izosf'kr dj lozj dks vksj Hkstk tkrk gsa ;gk RADIUS adapter ds ekè;e ls vki Secur ID token dk iz;ksx dj ldrs gsaa Secure Sockets Layer ;gk SSL,d Industry Standard Protocol gksrk gs ftlds }kjk network connections dks fuf'pr djrs gsa ;gk SSL ds }kjk authentication, data encryption rfkk data integrity dks lqjf{kr fd;k tkrk gsa SSL protocol, Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) dk vk/kj gsa SSL digital certificates dk iz;ksx djrk gs] tks fd X. 509 v3 rfkk public rfkk private ds tksm+s dk ikyu djrk gsa vkwjsdy Advance Security SSL dk iz;ksx ge DykbaV rfkk fdlh lozj ds eè; lapkj osq lqjf{kr j[kus esa djrs gsa SSL lozj ds fy,] DykbUV ds fy,] vfkok DykbUV rfkk lozj nksuksa ds izek.khdj.k iznku djrs gsa vki SSL osq y{k.kksa dks vu; izek.khdj.k fof/ osq la;kstu ds lkfk configure dj ldrs gs] ftls Oracle Advanced Security (MkVkcsl osq user names rfkk Passwords, Radius rfkk kerberos) osq }kjk liksvz fd;k tkrk gsa "PKI implementation" gsrw] Oracle Advanced Security ds }kjk SSL ds lkfk esa fueufyf[kr y{k.kksa dks lfeefyr fd;k tkrk gsa 263

264 a vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy Oracle wallets, tgk ij vki PKI Credentials dks lafpr dj ldrs gsa Oracle Wallet Manager, ftlds }kjk gekjs Oracle Wallet dks O;ofLFkr djus osq fy, iz;ksx dj ldrs gsa Certificate validation ds lkfk Certificate revocation List (CRLs) Hardware Security module Support Entrust / PKI Oracle Advanced Security ds }kjk public key intrastructure dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] tks fd Entrust Technologies ds Entrust / PKI software ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy vxz.kh lqj{kk lajpuk (Oracle Advanced Security Architecture) fp=k eas,d Oracle networking environment esa Oracle Advanced Security dk iz;ksx crk;k x;k gsa Oracle Advanced Security,d oracle lozj vfkok DykbUV bulvkwys'ku dks advanced security y{k.kksa ds lkfk deiyhesuv djrk gsa fp=k esa Oracle Advanced Security dks vkwjdy usvofd±x okrkoj.k esa iznf'kzr fd;k x;k gsa fp=k esa Oracle net Services dks Authentication Adapters ds lkfk esa n'kkz;k x;k gsa Oracle Advanced Security,MSiVj osq }kjk tks flfkr Oracle izksvksdkwy,msivj osq leku gs] mlosq izek.khdj.k dks liksvz djrk gsa tslk fd fp=k es a izlrqr fd;k x;k gs] izek.khdj.k,msivj (authentication adapter) Oracle Net buvjisql dks,dhñr djrk gs rfkk fo eku,fiyds'ku es fcuk dksbz ifjorzu fd, u, authentication system es a ikjnf'kzrk dk ykhk mbkus ;ksx; cukrk gsa 264 Oracle Advanced Security in an Oracle Networking Environment

265 vkwjsdy vfxze lqj{kk mik; Oracle Net Services with Authentication Adapters usvodz izksvksdkwy lhekvksa ij lqjf{kr MkVk varj.k (Secure Data Transfer Across Network Protocol Boundaries Oracle Connection Manager ds }kjk Oracle Advanced Security dks iw.kz:i ls lefkzu fd;k tkrk gs,oa blds }kjk Data dks Server ls Network esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa ;gk Clients ds }kjk LAN izksvksdkwy dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] tsls Netware (SPX/IPX)A mnkgj.k ds fy;s] fofhkuuk usvodz izksvksdkwy dk iz;ksx djrs gq, lqj{kkiwozd MkVk dk lk>k fo'kky lozj osq lkfk djrs gsa connection manager buozqhivm MkVk dks izksvksdkwy ls izksvksdky rd (tsls LU 6.2, TCP/IP, or DECnet) data dks share fd;k tkrk gsa rfkk MsVk dks usvodz esa dksfmr vksj fmdksfmr :i ls Hkstus dh t:jr Hkh ugha im+rha fllve vko';drk, (System Requirements) Oracle Advanced Security vkwjsdy&usv&lozj rfkk vkwjdy usv&dykbuv osq lkfk,d add on product cumy gksrk gsa bls DykbUV rfkk lozj ij vo'; gh ozq; rfkk bulvkwy fd;k tkuk pkfg,& Oracle Advanced Security log Release 2 (10.2) esa vkwjsdy usv log Release 2 (10.2) dh vko';drk gksrh gs rfkk ;g vkwjdy MkVkcsl buvjizkbt,fm'ku dks liksvz djrk gsa lkj.kh & additional System dh vko';drkvksa dks lwphc¼ djrh gsa uksv %& Oracle Advance Security vkwjdy MkVkcsl LVS.MMZ,fM'ku osq lkfk miyc/ ugh gsa Authention Method System Requirements Kerberos MIT Kerberos laldj.k 5, release 1.1 Kerberos authentication server dks vfuok;z :i ls physically secure system esa Install djuk pkfg,a RADIUS RADIUS Server ds }kjk] Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) RFC# 2138, Remote Authentication Dial In User Service (RADIUS) rfkk RFC# 219 RADIUS Accounting ds lkfk ikyu fd;k tkrk gsa ;gk fo"ke ifjflfkr;ksa ds fy;s] gesa RADIUS dks Java Native Interface 1.1 Operating System ij vfuok;z :i ls iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gsa 265

266 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy SSL,d wallet tks osq Oracle Wallet Manager log release osq lkfk laxr gksrk gsa wallets esustj osq iwoz esa fufezr laldj.kksa esa fd, x, osysv (wallets) vkxs dh vksj laxr ugha gksrsa Entrust/PKI liqnz fd, x, IPSEC Megotiator Toolkit laldj.k 6.0 Entrust/PKI vkwjsdy vxz.kh lqj{kk fuczu/ (Oracle Advanced Security Restrictions) vkwjsdy,iyhds'ku Oracle Advanced Security buozqhi'ku rfkk MkVk bfuvfxzvh dks likszv djrk gsa pw dh Oracle Advanced Security external dks vkwjdy usv lfozl dh vko';drk MkVk dks lqj{kk iwozd laokn djus ds fy, gksrh gsa oracle advanced Security external feature dks Oracle financial, Human Resource, vksj Manfacturing Applications ds }kjk lefkzu ugha fd;k tkrk tc ;g ekbozqkslkwýv foamks ij ju djk;k tk jgk gksrk gsa 19.2 fou;kl rfkk iz'kklu midj.kksa dk voyksdu (Configuration and Administration Tools Overview) vkwjsdy MkVk csl buvkul osq fy, advanced security features dks dkwufiqxj djus gsrq configuration encryption, bfuvfxzfv (check Summing) rfkk vkwjdy usv lsokvksa ds fy, 'kfdr'kkyh izek.khdj.k fof/;ks a (strong authentication method) dk iz;ksx djrs gs aa 'kfdr'kkyh izek.khdj.k fof/ ds dfuiqxjs'ku es a r`rh; i{k ds lkwývos;j dks 'kkfey fd;k tk ldrk gsa tslk fd ge kerberos ;k RADIUS osq mnkgj.k es a ns[krs gsa vfkok Secured Sockets Layer (SSL) osq lkfk fmftvy lfvzfiqosqv iz;ksx djus osq fy, blds Public key infrastructure dk configuration vksj izca/u vko';d gksrk gs A,sls fofo/ Advance security Feature dks dufiqxj,oa O;ofLFkr djus osq fy, fofhkuu izdkj osq lk/uks a dh vko';drk gksrh gsa ;g Hkkx fueufyf[kr topics vkwjdy MsVkcsl osq fy, advanced security iqhpj dks configure,oa O;ofLFkr djus osq fy, iz;qdr lk/uks a dk (tools) dk ifjp; nsrk gsa ;gk ij Oracle database ds fy;s fueufyf[kr advanced security y{k.kksa dks Configure fd;k x;k gsa Network Encryption rfkk Strong Authentication Configuration Tools Public key Infrastructure Credentials Management Tools Duties of a Security Administraton/DBA usvodz,fuøi'ku vfkok n`<+ izek.khdj.k fou;kl midj.k (Network Encryption or Strong Authentication Configuration Tools) 266 Network Encryption rfkk Strong Authencation Configuration Oracle Net services dks MkVk dks buozqhiv djus osq fy, Standard encryption,yxksfjn~e dk iz;ksx dj rfkk 'kfdr'kkyh auhentication method tsls kerberos RADIUS rfkk SSL osq }kjk configure fd;k tk ldrk gsa fueufyf[kr Hkkx vki dks vkwjdy tools ls ifjfpr djkrk gs] ftldk iz;ksx vki oracle database ds fy, advance security features dks configure djus osq fy, djrs gsa

267 Oracle Net Manager Oracle Advanced Security kerberos Adapter Command - Line Utilities (A) vkwjsdy usv esustj (Oracle Net Manager) Oracle Net Manager,d graphical user interface tool gksrk gs] ftlds }kjk local client ;k server host br;kfn dks configure djus dk dk;z fd;k tkrk gsa vkwjsdy vfxze lqj{kk mik; ; fi Oracle Net Manager ds }kjk Oracle Net Services dks Configure djus gsrq iz;ksx esa fy;k tkrk gs] tsls osq ukedj.k djuk listeners rfkk general network settings ;g vkidks fueu Oracle Advanced Security Features iznku djrk gs] ftls vki Oracle Net izkwvksdkwy esa iz;ksx djrs gsa ;g [k.m vkidks Oracle Net Manager ds y{k.kksa ls ifjfpr djkrk gs] ftldk iz;ksx vki Oracle Advance Security dks dfuiqxj djus esa djrs gsa Strong authentication (Kerberos, RADIUS rfkk Secure Sockets Layer) Network encryption (RC4, DES, Triple - DES, and AES) Crecksumming for data intergity (MD5, SHA-1) ;gk Oracle Net Manager ds }kjk Oracle Advanced Security dks Configure fd;k tkrk gs] ftlesa fueufyf[kr 'kh"kzdksa dks iz;ksx esa fy;k tkrk gsa Oracle Net Manager dks 'kq: djuka Oracle Advanced Security izkwiqkby dks Navigate djuka (i) vkwjsdy usv esustj izkjehk djuk (Starting Oracle Net Manager) : Oracle Enterprise Manager dk iz;ksx djrs gq, vki Oracle Net Manager dks 'kq: dj ldrs vfkok,d vdsys,fiyosq'ku (stand alone application) osq fy, Hkh dj ldrs gsa vki Oracle Net Manager dks stand alone,fiyosq'ku osq tsls 'kq: dj ldrs gsa vki Stand alone,fiyosq'ku dk iz;ksx Oracle Advanced Security izksiqkby dks,dlsl djus esa vo'; dj ldrs gsa] tgk vki Oracle Advanced Security fiqpj dks Configure djrs gsaa vki $ORACLE_HOME/bin, ls (UNIX) [kksys fiqj Command line ij fueufyf[kr dek.m dks enter djsaa netmgr Windows esa Start Programs Oracle HOME_NAME Configuration and Migration Tools Net Manager esa tk,a (ii) vkwjsdy vxz.kh lqj{kk izksiqkby lapkyu (Navigating Oracle Advanced Security Profile) : ;gk Oracle Net Manager interface foamks] nks isu (Panes) dks j[krk gs tks navigator pane rfkk right pane gksrs gsaa bl buvjiqsl ds }kjk fofhkuu izksivhz 'khvksa dks iznf'kzr fd;k tkrk gs ftlds }kjk ge network components dks Configure djrs gsaa tc vki navigator pane esa network object dks lysdv djrs gs] rc ;g mlls lecfu/r izksivhz 'khv dks right pane esa iznf'kzr djrk gsa ;gk Oracle Advanced Security dks Configure djus ds Lo&çxfr dh tk p djs aμ 1- MkVk glr{ksi D;k gksrk gs \ 2- Passward-Related Threads ls vki D;k le>rs gs a \ 3- 'kfùkq'kkyh çek.khdj.k ds nks eq[; IokWbaV D;k gs \ 267

268 vkj-mh-ch-,e-,lizsfdvl fon~ vksjsdy fy;s navigator pane esa Profile object dks Select djus dk dk;z fd;k tkrk gs vksj mlds ckn esa right pane esa list ls Oracle Advanced Security dks lysdv fd;k tkrk gs] tslk fd fp=k esa n'kkz;k x;k gs μ Oracle Advanced Security Profile in Oracle Net Manager (iii)vkwjsdy vxz.kh lqj{kk izksiqkby izkwivhz 'khv (Oracle Advanced Security Profile Property Sheets) : ;gk Oracle Advanced Security Profile ds }kjk fueufyf[kr izksivhz 'khv dks j[kk tkrk gsa Authentication Property Sheet Other Params Property Sheet Integrity Property Sheet Encryption Property Sheet SSL Property Sheet Authentication Property Sheet bl izkwivhz 'khv ds }kjk Strong authentication Method dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gs] tslsμ kerberos version 5 (KERBEROS5), Windows native authentication (NTS), on RADIUS. Other Params Property Sheet bl izkwivhz 'khv dk iz;ksx authentication method ds fy;s vu; parameters dks O;ofLFkr djus esa fd;k tkrk gsa 268 Integrity Property Sheet bl izkwivhz 'khv dk iz;ksx Client ;k server ij checksumming dk;z osq fy, djrs gs rfkk Secure messagee digests dks tfur djus ds fy;s encryption algorithm dks lysdv djrs gsa